STATISTICAL PROCESS

CONTROL
 OUTLINE

 Introduction.
 Summarising Data.
 Variation.
 Some Fundamentals.
 Control Charts.
 Stability ,Capability & Continuous
improvement.
 Deming’s 14 points.
 Introduction

 Management is responsible for

95% of Quality problems.
E.Deming
 What is Quality?
 How to improve Quality?
 What is value?
 Summarizing Data
 Types of data: Variables & Attributes.

 Purpose of Data gathering: “Decision making”

– Can we make it right?
– Are we making it right?
– Have we made it right?
– Can we make it better?

 Reasons for collection of Data

– To understand an actual situation
– For analysis
– Data for process control and acceptance and
rejection.
 Summarizing Data
 Measures of Location
– Average
– E.g. 3,10,16,1,5,14,11,6
– Median
 Measures of Dispersions
– Range
– RMSP
– Standard Deviation
 Histograms

 Run Chart.
 Variation

“If I had to reduce my message for

management to just a few words, I’d
say it all had to do with reducing
variation.”
E. Deming.
 Variation

 There is variation among the products

from any manufacturing process.

 We would like to completely get rid of

variation but we know that can’t be done.

 The goal is to be able to measure/identify

variation and than work to minimize it.
 Variation

Sources of Variation
 Equipment
 Direct Materials
 Indirect Materials
 People
 Methods
 Orders
 Facilities
 Variation
Equipment
Indirect Material Machines
Fixtures People
Tools
Gauges/Masters Training
Coolant
Spindles/Collects Skill
Bushings
Motivation
Lubricants
Communication
Chemicals
Attitude
Trust
Direct Material
Hardness Product
Machiniability
Pick up points Quality

Orders Methods
Clarity Specification
Timeliness Facilities Speeds
Adequacy Temperature Feeds
Product mix Cleanliness Process Documentation
Quantity Humidity
Noise
Central coolant system
 Variation
Types of variation
 Controlled variation (Common causes):
Is stable and consistent pattern of variation
over time.

 Uncontrolled variation (Assignable

cause):
Is a pattern of variation that changes over
time.
 Variation
Controlled Variation
Frequency for each size

Time

Prod
uct
Frequency for each size

size
Time

Prod Uncontrolled Variation

uc t siz
e
 Variation
Difference between Common and Assignable cause
Common Cause
1) A large number are in effect
at any time.
2) Each has an individual effect
that is too small to mention.
3) Only a change in the system
will reduce that part of the
variability.
4) Only management has the
ability to make changes.
5) Remain constant over time.
Assignable Cause
1) Very few in effect at any
time.
2) The effect is measurable.
3) They can be found and
eliminated.
4) The machine operator is
best able to discover and
make changes.
5)They occur infrequently in an
unpredictable manner.
 Variation
Approaches to Variation

Fabricate Inspect Pack Ship

Inspect Quality Audit

Rework Scrap

Report to Management

Detection based system

 Variation

‘T’ test - Exercise

 “t” Test demonstrating 100% inspection.

Instructions: When the instructor says

“go”, please count the number of “t’s” in
the paragraph. You will have one minute.
At the end of that time, be able to state
how many “t’s” are in the paragraph.
 Variation
Approaches to Variation

Consumers and
Production, service to customer
assembly,
inspection, test
Distribution
Suppliers of Test of
raw materials raw Final
material inspection

Prevention based system

Some Fundamentals

50% 50%
“Balanced”
Normal Distribution
Some Fundamentals

68%

95%

99.73%

1s 1s 1s 1s 1s 1s

Normal Distribution.
 Some Fundamentals
Four possibilities for any Process
Threshold State Ideal State
•Process in control •Process in Control
Process displays

•Some non confirming Product •100% conforming products

•Must Either… •Control Charts
Change process, or Maintain process in control
Change specifications Evaluate efforts at improvement
•Sorting is temporary fix
control

•Control Charts Chaos managers

Maintain process in control
Evaluate efforts at improvement
State of Chaos Brink of Chaos
•Process out of control •Process out of control
Process has Lack of

•Some non conforming product •100% conforming product

•Assignable causes still dominate
•Random fluctuations due to
assignable causes will eventually
frustrate efforts at process
improvement.
Control
•All may seem okay, but…
•Assignable causes determine what
is produced by the process!
•Quality and conformance can
change in a moment.

•The only way out of chaos is to first

eliminate the assignable caused
Entropy slide
Some nonconforming products 100% conforming products
produced produced
 Some Fundamentals

“We are being ruined by best efforts.”

Deming
The Funnel Experiment:
This experiment can be carried out with a relatively simple
apparatus:
1. A funnel, such as found in kitchen.
2. A holder for funnel, e.g. a desk lamp.
3. A marble, small enough to pass through the stem.
4. A table covered with washable table cloth.
5. A felt tip pen with non permanent ink. And
6. A ruler and a protractor.
 Some Fundamentals
Funnel Experiment
Rule One :
Don’t shift the funnel, irrespective of where the
marble comes to rest.

“Lets do something. Don’t just sit there.

Do something about it Move the
Funnel.”
 Some Fundamentals
Funnel Experiment
Rule two :
Move the funnel in attempt to compensate for the
amount by which the marble misses the target.

Suppose marble finishes six inch east of the target

funnel is moved six inch west of the target.

Example
Firing rifle bullet on the target.

100 marbles dropped using rule 2 of the

funnel
 Some Fundamentals
Funnel Experiment
Rule three :
Move the funnel in attempt to compensate for the
amount by which the marble misses the target.

Suppose marble finishes six inch east of the target

funnel is moved six inch west of relative current
position.
Example
Over control

100 marbles dropped using rule 3 of the

funnel
 Some Fundamentals
Funnel Experiment
Rule four :
Move the funnel directly over the position where the
marble has just landed.
E.g.
1. Colour matching where each
batch of paint is matched with previous
batch.
2. Operator that tries to achieve
consistency by making each piece as
previous one.
3. Worker training worker.

100 marbles dropped using rule 4 of the

funnel
 Control charts

Purpose of control chart

“The function of a control chart is to
minimize the net economic losses from
over adjustment and under adjustment.”
 Control charts

Preparatory steps for Control Chart

 Establish an environment suitable for action.
 Define the process.
 Determine characteristics to be charted.
 Define the measurement system.
 Minimize unnecessary variation.
 Control Chart

 Uses sub groups to monitor process

R
 Control Chart

Type of control charts

Variables Attribute
Based on sample size: Based on type of data:
Is the interest in non conforming
unit i.e. percent defective
x and R
p chart
x and s np chart (sample size constant)

x and moving range

Is the interest in non conformities
i.e. discrepancies/part?
c chart (sample size constant)

u chart
 Control chart
Foundations of Control Charts
 Always use control limits which are set at 3 sigma limits
on either side of central line.

 In computing three sigma limit one must always use an

average dispersion statistic.

 Use rational sampling and rational subgrouping.

 Control Chart are effective only to the extent that the

organization can use, in a effective manner, the
knowledge gained from the charts.
 Logic of control chart
Assume process Predict Behaviour of Averages and
displays controlled ranges (Calculate Control Limit)
variation

Compare observed or
Future Average and
range values with
control limit

If observations are If observations are

consistent with inconsistent with
predictions then predictions then
process may be process is definitely
stable unstable

Continued operation of Take action to identify

process within limits is and remove assignable
the only “proof” of causes
stability
 Control Chart
Control Limits
 Compute average & range for each sub group of k subgroups
 Compute the grand average, X, by averaging each of the k sub
group averages.
 Compute average range R by averaging each of k subgroup
ranges.
 The certral line for X- chart is X
 The center line for R chart is R.
 Find the values for A2, D3, D4, which correspond to the sub
group size n.
 Multiply R by A2 = A2R
 Add and subtract A2R from X to get UCL and LCL for X-chart.
 Multiply R by D4 to get UCL for R chart
 Multiply R by D3 to get LCL for R chart.
 Control Chart

Control Charts for Subgroup size one

 Used in several situation where the logical subgroup
size is n = 1. This might happen when each
measurement represents on batch or the measurement
are widely spaced over time.

 UNPLx = X + 2.66mR
 CLx = X
 LNPLx = X - 2.660 mR
 UCLr = 3.268 mR
 CLr = mR
 Control Chart
Rational Subgrouping

 Never subgroup unlike thing together.

 Minimize the variation within each subgroup.
 Maximize the opportunity for variation
between subgroups.
 Average across noise not across signal
 Treat the chart in accordance with the data.
 Control Charts
Analyzing Control Charts
 Choice of scale for control charts: Scale should be twice as
the control limit spread.

 What is Reasonable Degree of statistical Control?

Process is said to be in statistical control if 100 consecutive
observations fail to indicate lack of control i.e 25 consecutive sub
groups with size 4 or 20 consecutive with subgroup size 5.

 Myths about control Chart.

– Data should be normally distributed before they can be placed on
control chart.
– It has been said that the data must be in control before one can plot
them on a control chart.
– Only useful in shopfloor.
 Control Chart
Four rules for defining Lack of Control

 A lack of control is indicated whenever a single point falls out

side the control limit
 A lack of control is indicated whenever at least two out of
three successive values fall on the same side of and more than
two sigma units away from the central line
 A lack of control is indicated whenever at least four out of five
successive values fall on the same side of, and more than one
sigma units away from the central line
 A lack of control is indicated whenever at least seven
successive values fall on same side of central line
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
“The first step in examination of data is accordingly to question
the state of statistical control that produced the data”
Deming
Process Capability
“Capability refers to the quantification of common cause
variation. The presence of special or assignable cause make
the prediction of capability impossible and meaning of
capability unclear.”

Cpk: What is it?

A prediction of the level of quality (or measure of the inherent
uniformity) a process can produce.
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
Process capability indices
LSL USL
LSL Avg. USL

6s 3s 3s
Total Tol. Zu Zl

Cp or Pp = Total Tol Cpk or Ppk = Min of zu & zl

6s 3s

Note : Pp/Ppk is calculated for short run of a process &

Cp/Cpk is calculated for long run of process
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
Limits for Individual values

For X-R chart

 Find the value d2 which corresponds to the sub group
size ‘n’
 Divide the Average Range by d2 to get Sigma(X) =
R/d2.
 Multiply this quantity by 6 to get 6 sigma(X) = 6* R/d2.

For X- mR Chart
 Using the grand average as the central line add and
subtract the above value to get UNPLx & LNPLx
respectively.
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
Capability Analysis
 Short term capability study.
– Will only reveal part of story as assignable causes may not have
an opportunity to arrive.
– Uses anywhere between 25 - 50 values.

 Steps.
– Plot individual vales observe any indication of lack of statistical
control.
– Plot XmR chart
– Calculate control limits. Difference in UNL and LNL will give 6
sigma value. Use the same in computing Pp and Ppk.
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement

Cpk logic applied to Juran’s Optimal Quality

Cost model

T0 T0
Cost per good unit of product

Total
quality
costs

Failure
costs

Cost of
Appraisal plus
prevention

100% 100%
defective Quality of Conformance good

Cpk 1 1.33
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
SPC Implementation
CONDUCT GR&R

GAUGE CAPABLE

CONDUCT PROCESS
POTENTIAL STUDY

INCAPABLE CAPABLE
VERY CAPABLE

100% CONTROL UNTIL TARGETING CRITICAL -

IMPROVEMENT MADE MUST REACT QUICKLY CONTROL CHARTS TO
TO OUT OF CONTROL IDENTIFY SOURCE OF
CONTROL CHART FOR CONDITION VARIATION
PROBLEM SOLVING
CONTROL CHART TO
REDUCE VARIABILITY
(SPC ON GOING CONTINUE CHARTING
CONTROL) UNTIL DESIRED LONG TERM
CAPABILITY IS OBTAINED

MARGINAL EXTREMELY
CAPABLE Cpk Cpk>
CAPABILITY CAPABLE Cpk
1.33 - 2.50 4.0
100% OR SPC 2.5 - 4.0
CONTINUE X CONTINUE X
IMMEDIATE N=2
AND R AND R
ACTION ON OUT POSSIBLE
CHART REDUCE
OF CONTROL
FRQUENCY
CONDITIONS
REQUIRED
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
World Class Quality
 World class quality is Quality which is on
target with minimal variation.
Loss

measurement
LSL USL

Loss Function Representing the

conformance to Specification
Interpretation of Quality
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
World Class Quality
K = Targeting error
Loss

measurement

A quadratic loss function with a product distribution

Taguchi’s Loss function states that there exists a target, or ideal value,
for any characteristic and a continuous loss function which indicates that
the further a given product lies away from the target the higher the total
economic loss to society
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
 Control Chart is effective tool to reduce process
dispersion and lead to continual improvement.
 “Control charts used just for monitoring is waste of
valuable resources.”
 Refer Handout for example on continuous
improvement.
 PDCA cycle
Plan
Act
Specification
Production

Do
Check

Inspection
Quality Control process
Quality Control process
shown as circle
shown as circle
 Stability, Capability &
Continuous Improvement
Why Continuous Improvement?
 Knowledge gets the process into good shape, and
makes them so well understood, that the chance of any
thing going seriously wrong with them is negligible -
which itself constitutes huge saving.
 Operation becomes hassle free.
 It contributes to innovation.
 Enhanced morale and pride in workmanship.
 Less or no warranty.
 Meeting specification are not good enough.
 Demings Fourteen Points

 Constancy of Purpose.
 The new philosophy.
 Cease dependence on mass inspection.
 End lowest tender contract.
 Improve every process.
 Institute training.
 Institute Leadership of people.
 Drive out fear.
 Break down barriers.
 Eliminate Exhortations.
 Eliminate Arbitrary numerical targets.
 Permit pride in workmanship.
 Encourage education.
 Top management commitment and action.