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CAMPECHE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

ENG. MARCELO MORALES CLEMENTE

METAL MECHANICAL ENGINEER

UNIT II: Penetrating liquids (LP)

Unit Objective:
The student will determine service activities to develop predictive
maintenance programs through the application of penetrating liquids.

Theme 2.1: Introduction to the liquid penetrant method.

It is a non-destructive test that uses a specific liquid (penetrating) that is
introduced into the open discontinuities on the surface of solid materials and
that, after an adequate process, indicates the presence of said discontinuities.

ASTM E-165 Standard

 HISTORICAL REVIEW

Although the exact date of the pfirst liquid penetrant test, it is generally believed
that the first tests were carried out in the late 19th century and were mainly
limited to the examination of various parts of railways, such as rails and axles.

Parts were cleaned and immersed in dirty locomotive engine oil, the oil diluted
with kerosene or alcohol to be thin enough to penetrate surface discontinuities.
After saturation with oil, the part was allowed to drain. During the drain time,
known today as penetration time, the oil penetrated cracks and other surface
imperfections.

After excess oil was removed from the surface with a solvent, the part was
covered with a white liquid consisting of a white powder (chalk) suspended in
alcohol. After a while, the oil trapped in the surface discontinuities of the part
came to the surface and showed up as amwide dark on the white background.
 PURPOSE OF THE TEST

The inspection method is based on the property that some liquids have to be
able to enter and exit very small openings (capillarity).
It is limited to the detection of discontinuities that have an opening towards the
surface of the piece; this is essential so that the penetrating liquid can do its
job.
It is a relatively easy method to apply, however, it must be taken into account
that each step of the process must be carried out with certain care and
technical considerations in order to obtain reliable and repetitive results.

“A reckless technician may accept parts with objectionable

discontinuities and a conservative technician may reject parts
with acceptable discontinuities”
Advantages of the method
 It is a fast, relatively simple, and cost-effective way to examine all accessible
surfaces of a part.
 Detect surface discontinuities regardless of their orientation.
 It can be used on ferrous and non-ferrous materials, alloys, ceramics, glass
and plastics.
 It does not require the use of expensive and sophisticated equipment.
 The method can be used in the field or can be adapted to inspect large
volumes of production.
 It is a direct END, it allows direct visualization of the discontinuity.
Disadvantages of the method.
 Only discontinuities open to the test surface are detected.
 An exhaustive cleaning of the test surface is required, the internal part of the
discontinuities must be free of any contaminant that prevents the entrance of
the penetrant.
 Very rough surfaces or permeable materials limit the use of this method.
 Not suitable for surface inspection at high temperatures.
 The results of the test are highly dependent on the degree of knowledge and
skill of the person performing the test.
TYPES OF PENETRATING LIQUIDS
The various liquids used for this test are known as penetrating materials:
1. Penetrants: ORa solution or suspension of dyes with high capillarity.
2. Removers: Liquids used to remove excess penetrant, including emulsifiers.
3. Developers: A material that is toApplied on the trial surface to accelerate
bleeding and increase the contrast of the indications.
CLASSIFICATION OF PENETRATING MATERIALS

Penetrant materials are classified as follows in accordance with the provisions

of MIL-I-25135 or in WHA-2466:

Type of penetrant: I and II

Penetrant method: A, B, C and D
Developer forms: a, b, c, d, e and f
TYPES OF PENETRANTS:
Type I: Fluorescent Penetrant

Sensitivity levels.
Sensitivity level ½ : Very low Sensitivity is related

Sensitivity level 1: Low to its ability to enter

small discontinuities.
sensitivity level 2 medium
sensitivity level 3: High
sensitivity level 4: ultra high

Type II: Visible Penetrating

They are not classified into sensitivity levels

METHOD OF PENETRATING
The penetrant method is a function of the form of removal.
Method A: Washable with water.
Method B: Removable with Lipophilic Emulsifier.
Method C: Solvent Removable.
Method D: Removable with Hydrophilic Emulsifier.

WAYS TO REVEALED
Form "to"”: Dry powder developer.
Form "b"”: water soluble developer.
“c” shape”: Suspended developer in water.
d-shape”: Type I penetrating pear non-aqueous developer.
form "e"”: Type II penetrating pear non-aqueous developer.
form “f”: Specific application developer.
VISIBLE PENETRANTS: They contain dyes that are visible under natural light
or white light, they are normally red in color and their visibility is increased with
the use of a white developer liquid that creates a contrasting background on the
test surface.
FLUORESCENT PENETRANT: contain fluorescent colored dye that glows
brightly when exposed to ultraviolet light UV-A, also known as black light.

 Penetrants are petroleum-based or water-based liquids (for inspection of

plastics and specialty materials) that contain a dissolved pigment that may be
visible or fluorescent.
 Its function is to enter discontinuities and then emerge to form an easily
visible indication on the test surface.
 They can be selfemulsifiable or post-emulsifiable.
The penetrating liquid must have the capacity to:

 Be easily removed from the test surface during the excess penetrant removal
stage.
 Remain within the discontinuity until the development stage.
 Emerge from discontinuity to form highly visible indications.
 Have a color that allows for high contrast
 Do not dry out or evaporate easily.
Dry powder developer: they are used as supplied, applied by immersion, by
dusting in a fog chamber, by bulbs or spray guns. It is used with fluorescent
penetrants.
Aqueous Developers: They are normally supplied as a dry powder to be
suspended or dissolved in water. Its preparation, concentration and
maintenance is carried out according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
Water soluble developers should not be used with self-penetratingemulsifiable.
They are used in inspection stations to be applied by immersion.
Developers in non-aqueous suspension: they are a mixture of solid particles
suspended in a non-aqueous solvent (normally in alcohol or acetone), they are
supplied in pressurized cans to be applied by spray or in buckets to be applied
with a pneumatic gun.
special / liquid film developers: are solutions or suspensions of dry powder in
a resin or polymer, these developers form a translucent layer on the surface.
Some may be removed from the surface for recording purposes.
The method consists of the application of the following steps:

1. Preparation of the piece.

2. Lighting conditions.
3. Penetrant application.
4. Removal of excess penetrant.
5. Developer application and drying.
6. Interpretation and evaluation.
7. Final cleaning.
1. Preparation Of the piece.
Initial cleaning: It is a critical stage of the process; The surfaces to be
inspected must be dry and free of any contaminant that may prevent the
penetrant from entering the surface discontinuities of the part.
The selection of the cleaning method should be made taking in bill:
• The type of contaminant to be removed.
• Its effect on the material.
• The feasibility of your application.
• Customer specific cleaning requirements.

Any method must comply with the following:

• Leave no residue.
• Do not close discontinuities.
• Do not damage the material to be inspected.
Surface preparation can be done by:

1. Cleaning with detergents.

2. Cleaning with solvents.
3. Degreasing steam.
4. Alkaline cleaning.
5. Ultrasonic cleaning.
6. Paint removal.
7. Acid attack.
8. Mechanical cleaning.
2. Lighting conditions.
Testing using visible penetrants should be performed under natural or artificial
light. The standards establish minimum lighting levels that must be met to
ensure the effectiveness of the inspection.
ASTM E165-09 States: Type II penetrating leg The lighting system must
provide at least 100 fc (1076 lx) on the test surface.
Testing using fluorescent penetrants should be performed in a dark location
where the visible light level is no greater than 2 fc (20 lx). A UV-A light lamp that
provides at least 1000 mw/cm2 should be used.
The measurement of lighting levels must be performed using a black light
intensity meter and/or visible light as the case may be.

The meter for visible light and light UV-A should be calibrated every 6 months.
The measurement of the lighting levels must be carried out at the beginning of
the working day, every 8 hours and every time theUV-A turns on.
3. Penetrant application.
It can be applied by brush, by pneumatic or electrostatic spray, by immersion or
by any other means that ensures an adequate application of the penetrant on
the test surface.
When applying the penetrant, you should:
• Ensure adequate coverage of the area of ​interest.
• Avoid unnecessary application.
• Avoid puddles.
• Avoid staining the sadjacent surfaces of the area of ​interest.

According to ASTM e 165-09

The component to be inspected, the penetrant and the ambient temperature
must be in a range between 4 °C to 52 °C unless another requirement is
specified.
Penetration time.
ASTM E 165.-09 states that the penetration time should be as recommended
by the manufacturer, however you state minimum recommended times.

For temperature ranges from 4.4 °C to 10 °C the recommended minimum

penetration time is 29 minutes.
The maximum penetration time must not exceed the maximum time
established by the manufacturer.
4. Removal of excess penetrant
After the penetration time has ended, the excess penetrant is removed from the
surface, in order to leave only the penetrant that remained lodged in the
discontinuities.

There are four methods for removing excess penetrant.

Method A: Water Removal.

Method B: Removal with Lipophilic Emulsifier.
Method C: Solvent Removal.
Method D: Removal with Hydrophilic Emulsifier.
Method A: Water Removal.
This method is used for self-penetratingemulsifiableThese are petroleum
distillate based but have an integrated emulsifier.
A emulsifier It is a liquid that interacts with a fatty substance to make it
removable with water.

• The water pressure should not

exceed 40 psi. The temperature
should be between 10 to 38 °C.
• A coarse droplet spray should be
used at a distance of not less than 30
cm between the nozzle and the part.
• When using water and air the
pressure should not exceed 25 psi.
PENETRATING TYPE I PENETRATING TYPE II
Method B: Removal with Lipophilic Emulsifier.
this removal method is applicable for penetrants post-emulsifiable.
After the penetration time has elapsed, the emulsifier is applied, it acts with the
penetrant to generate a mixture penetrant-emulsifier be removable with
water.
The lipophilic emulsifier can only be applied by immersion or flow and the part
must not be shaken during the emulsification time.
PENETRATING TYPE I PENETRATING TYPE II
Method C: Solvent Removal.
This removal method can be applied for penetrants car-emulsifiable Y post-
emulsifiable.
Removal should be done by wiping the surface with clean, dry, lint-free
absorbent material; then use an absorbent material slightly moistened with
solvent (not soaked) and wipe gently; avoid removing penetrant from
discontinuities; do not overuse remover.

It is forbidden to apply
solvent directly on the
test surface.
PENETRATING TYPE I PENETRATING TYPE II
Method D: Removal with Hydrophilic Emulsifier.
This removal method is applicable for penetrants post-emulsifiable.
The hydrophilic emulsifier is applied after a pre-rinse with water following the
recommendations of removal method A.
Subsequently, the hydrophilic emulsifier is applied by immersion, flow or spray,
the pieces can be shaken during the emulsification time to facilitate removal.
Removal is done by detergent action.
The removal of excess penetrant is a critical part of the process and in any of
the removal methods, it is necessary to:
Avoid excessive removal: penetrant trapped in discontinuities can be
removed; decreasing sensitivity and invalidating the test results.
Avoid a removal fault: this would cause a lot of indications; this would prevent
an adequate interpretation of the results.
“If one of these two situations occurs: the parts must be cleaned and
reprocessed”
5. Developer application and drying.
The application of the developer is carried out according to the type of
developer that will be used:
• Dry powder developer:used only with fluorescent penetrants. (only on dry
surfaces)
• Non-aqueous suspension developer (suspended in solvent): are used
with visible or fluorescent penetrants to inspections in workshop or country.
(only on dry surfaces)
• aqueous developer (in suspension and in water-based solution): it is used
in inspection stations.
• LThe developer layer should be thin and even.
• A thick developer coat of developer could mask indications of fine, narrow
discontinuities.
• A very light coat of developer may not be enough to remove entrapped
penetrant in small discontinuities or may create poor contrast.
The development time starts immediately after applying the dry developer
or as soon as the wet developer layer dries.
ASTM E165-09 sets the following recommended development times.

Type developer Weather Minimum and

maximum
Developer dried 10 minutes and 4 hours
Aqueous Developers 10 minutes and 2 hours
6. Interpretation and evaluation.
Once the minimum development time has elapsed, a visual
inspection must be carried out on the examined surfaces to
interpret the indications formed.

An indication is the response obtained from the application of a Non-

Destructive Test. All indications formed must be interpreted.
Interpret is to determine if an indication is:
• False: an indication that is not generated from an imperfection or
discontinuities in the part.
• Not relevant: an indication that is caused by a condition or type of
discontinuity that is not rejectable.
• Relevant: An indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity
that requires evaluation.
In order to correctly interpret the results, the technician must know the following
about the part or components to be inspected:

 Type of material.
 Fabrication process.
 geometric configuration.
 Status of the components (new or in service).
 Conditions of service of the part.
The evaluation consists of determining whether or not an unintentional
discontinuity (relevant indication) meets the specified acceptance criteria, it is
the action of comparing the dimensions or characteristics of a discontinuity
against an acceptance standard. If a discontinuity does not meet the
acceptance criteria, it is evaluated as rejectable and acquires the category
ofdefault.
Iindication

Discontinuity
7. Final cleaning.
All components inspected must be cleaned to remove residual penetrant and
developer.

The developer can absorb humidity from the environment and favor the
oxidation of the pieces.

The cleaning method must not damage the parts inspected.

INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES
They are those that originate in the material, from the solidification of the cast
metal, which is why they are found in ingots and in the pieces produced by the
foundry processes.

Casting discontinuities.
• Tcold scrape.
• internal cavities.
• Hot tears.
• Porosity.
• inclusions.
• Segregations.
welding discontinuities.
Welding is a joining process that permanently joins two separate components
by heating, weighing, or combining the two to make them one piece.

• Overlaps.
• undermined.
• inclusions.
• Porosity.
• Lack of penetration.
• lack of fusion.
• lamellar tear.
• Cracks.
PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES.
They are anomalies of the material produced during cold or hot working.

The most common primary processes are:

• Hot or cold rolled: Laminations.
• Extrusion: seams, inclusions, overlaps and cracks.
• Wrought: overlaps, seams and cracks.