CH 16 Oscilators

Chapter 16
Oscillators
Objectives
 Describe the basic concept of an oscillator
 Discuss the basic principles of operation of an oscillator
 Analyze the operation of RC and LC feedback oscillators
 Describe the operation of the basic relaxation oscillator
circuits
 Discuss the use of a 555 timer in an oscillator circuit
Introduction
Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous

signal of some type without the need of an input.
These signals serve a variety of purposes.
Communications systems, digital systems (including
computers), and test equipment make use of
oscillators.
The Oscillator
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal from
a dc voltage.
The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the
output to maintain the oscillations.
The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit
to generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square wave.
Figure 16–2 Basic elements of a feedback oscillator.
Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Thomas L. Floyd
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Electronic Devices, 7e
All rights reserved.
Feedback Oscillator Principles
The feedback oscillator is widely used for generation of
sine wave signals. The positive (in phase) feedback
arrangement maintains the oscillations. The feedback gain
must be kept to unity to keep the output from distorting.
Figure 16–3 Positive feedback produces oscillation.

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Figure 16–4 General conditions to sustain oscillation.

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Figure 16–5 When oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl > 1 causes the sinusoidal output voltage amplitude to build up to a desired
level. Then Acl decreases to 1 and maintains the desired amplitude.

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Oscillators With RC Feedback
Circuits
RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to

frequencies of 1 Mhz or less. The three types of RC
oscillators we will discuss are the Wien-bridge, the
phase-shift, and the twin-T.
Figure 16–6 A lead-lag circuit and its response curve.

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Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits
The lead-lag circuit of a Wien-bridge oscillator reduces
the input signal by 1/3 and yields a response curve as
shown. The frequency of resonance can be determined
by the formula below.
fr = 1/2RC
Circuits
The lead-lag circuit
is in the positive
feedback loop of
Wien-bridge
oscillator. The
voltage divider
limits gain. The
lead lag circuit is
basically a band-
pass with a narrow
bandwidth (high
Q).
Figure 16–7 The Wien-bridge oscillator schematic drawn in two different but equivalent ways.

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Since there is a loss of Circuits
about 1/3 of the signal in the positive
feedback loop, the voltage-divider ratio must be adjusted
such that a positive feedback loop gain of 1 is produced. This
requires a closed-loop gain of 3. The ratio of R1 and R2 can be
set to achieve this.
Figure 16–9 Conditions for start-up and sustained oscillations.

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Circuits
To start the oscillations an initial
gain greater than 1 must be
achieved. The back-to-back
zener diode arrangement is one
way of achieving this. When dc
is first applied the zeners appear
as opens. This allows the slight
amount of positive feedback
from turn on noise to pass.
Circuits
The lead-lag circuit
narrows the feedback to
allow just the desired
frequency of these turn
transients to pass. The
higher gain allows
reinforcement until the
breakover voltage for the
zeners is reached.
Automatic gain control isCircuits
necessary to maintain a gain of exact
unity. The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces
distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes. A JFET in the
negative feedback loop can be used to precisely control the gain. After
the initial startup and the output signal increases the JFET is biased
such that the negative feedback keeps the gain at precisely 1.
Figure 16–12

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Automatic gain control isCircuits
necessary to maintain a gain of exact
unity. The zener arrangement for gain control is simple but produces
distortion because of the nonlinearity of zener diodes. A JFET in the
negative feedback loop can be used to precisely control the gain. After
the initial startup and the output signal increases the JFET is biased
such that the negative feedback keeps the gain at precisely 1.
Circuits
The phase shift oscillator utilizes three RC circuits to provide 180º
phase shift that when coupled with the 180º of the op-amp itself
provides the necessary feedback to sustain oscillations. The gain
must be at least 29 to maintain the oscillations. The frequency of
resonance for the this type is similar to any RC circuit oscillator.
fr = 1/26RC
Oscillators With RC Feedback Circuits
The twin-T utilizes a band-stop arrangement of RC circuits to
block all but the frequency of operation in the negative feedback
loop. The only frequency allowed to effectively oscillate is the
frequency of resonance.
Figure 16–14

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Oscillators With LC Feedback
Circuits
For frequencies above 1 Mhz, LC feedback
oscillators are used. We will discuss the
Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong,
and crystal-controlled oscillators.
Transistors are used as the active device in
these types.
Circuits
The Colpitts oscillator
utilizes a tank circuit
(LC) in the feedback
loop. The resonant
frequency can be
determined by the
formula below. Since
the input impedance
affects the Q, an FET
is a better choice for
the active device.
fr = 1/2LCT
Figure 16–17 The attenuation of the tank circuit is the output of the tank (Vf) divided by the input to the tank (Vout).

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Figure 16–18 Zin of the amplifier loads the feedback circuit and lowers its Q, thus lowering the resonant frequency.

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Figure 16–19 A basic FET Colpitts oscillator.

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Figure 16–20 Oscillator loading.

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Figure 16–21

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Circuits
The Clapp is
similar to the
Colpitts with
exception to
the additional
capacitor in the
tank circuit.
The same
formula applies
as for the
Colpitts.
Circuits
The Hartley
oscillator is similar
to the Clapp and
Colpitts. The tank
circuit has two
inductors and one
capacitor. The
calculation of the
resonant frequency
is the same.
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
The Armstrong uses transformer coupling in the feedback
loop. For this reason the Armstrong is not as popular.
The crystal-controlled Circuits
oscillator is the most stable and
accurate of all oscillators. A crystal has a natural frequency
of resonance. Quartz material can be cut or shaped to have
a certain frequency. We can better understand the use of a
crystal in the operation of an oscillator by viewing its
electrical equivalent.
Oscillators With LC Feedback Circuits
Since crystal has

natural resonant
frequencies of 20 Mhz
or less, generation of
higher frequencies is
attained by operating
the crystal in what is
called the overtone
mode. Overtones are
usually odd multiples of
a crystal’s fundamental.
Figure 16–26 Basic crystal oscillators.

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Figure 16–27 Basic triangular-wave oscillator.

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Relaxation Oscillators
Relaxation oscillators
make use of an RC
timing and a device
that changes states
to generate a
periodic waveform.
This triangular-
wave oscillator
makes use of a
comparator and
integrator to actually
produce both a
triangle wave and
square wave.
Output levels are set by the ratio of R2 and R3 times the
maximum output of the comparator. The frequency of
output can be determined by the formula below.
fr = 1/4R1C(R2/R3)
Figure 16–30

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The voltage-controlled sawtooth oscillator’s

frequency can be changed by a variable dc
control voltage. One possible type uses a
programmable unijunction transistor.
The forward voltage of the PUT (VF) determines the frequency
of the output. The formula below shows the relationship.
f = VIN/RiC(1/Vp-VF)
Figure 16–32

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Figure 16–33 Output of the circuit in Figure 16–32.

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A square wave relaxation oscillator uses the charging and
discharging of the capacitor to cause the op-amp to switch
states rapidly and produce a square wave. The RC time
constant determines the frequency.
Figure 16–36 Internal diagram of a 555 integrated circuit timer. (IC pin numbers are in parentheses.)

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The 555 Timer As An Oscillator
The 555 timer is an
integrated circuit that can
be used in many
applications. We will
discuss its operation as a
square wave oscillator.
The frequency of output
is determined by the
external components R1,
R2, and C. The formula
below shows the
relationship.
fr = 1.44/(R1 + 2R2)C
Detailed operation is
described within the text.
Figure 16–38 Operation of the 555 timer in the astable mode.

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Duty cycles can be adjusted by values of R1 and R2. The
duty cycle is limited to 50% with this arrangement. To have
duty cycles less than 50%, a diode is placed across R2. The
two formulas show the relationship. (see following slide)
Duty Cycle >50 % = R1 + R2/R1 + 2R2 x 100%

Duty Cycle <50 % w/diode = R1/R1 + R2 x 100%
Figure 16–39 Frequency of oscillation (free-running frequency) of a 555 timer in the astable mode as a function of Cext and R1 + 2R2. The
sloped lines are values of R1 + 2R2.

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Figure 16–41

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The 555 timer by be operated as a VCO with a control
voltage applied to the CONT input (pin 5).
Figure 16–43 The VCO output frequency varies inversely with VCONT because the charging and discharging time of Cext is directly
dependent on the control voltage.

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Summary
 Sinusoidal oscillators operate with positive feedback.
 Two conditions for oscillation are 0º feedback phase
shift and feedback loop gain of 1.
 The initial startup requires the gain to be momentarily
greater than 1.
 RC oscillators include the Wien-bridge, phase shift,
and twin-T.
 LC oscillators include the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley,
Armstrong, and crystal.
Summary
 The crystal actually uses a crystal as the LC tank circuit
and is very stable and accurate.
 A voltage controlled oscillator’s (VCO) frequency is
controlled by a dc control voltage.
 A 555 timer is a versatile integrated circuit that can
be used as a square wave oscillator or pulse generator.
Figure 16–44 Front panel of the function generator.

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Figure 16–45 Block diagram of the function generator.

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Figure 16–46 Schematic of the function generator.

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Figure 16–47 The function generator circuit boards.

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Figure 16–48 Results of tests on four faulty units. The scope screen shows the output voltage in each case.

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Figure 16–49

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Figure 16–50 Multisim file circuits are identified with a CD logo and are in the Problems folder on your CD-ROM. Filenames
correspond to figure numbers (e.g., F16-50).

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Figure 16–51

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Figure 16–52

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Figure 16–53

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Figure 16–54

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Figure 16–55

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Figure 16–56

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CH 16 Oscilators

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Chapter 16

Oscillators are circuits that produce a continuous

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

RC feedback oscillators are generally limited to

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Since crystal has

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The voltage-controlled sawtooth oscillator’s

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Duty Cycle >50 % = R1 + R2/R1 + 2R2 x 100%

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright ©2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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