Process Perspectives

Theories
CU9 | MIDTERM
Social Process Perspectives

• Refers to a group of theories which point

to the individual’s socialization process as
the cause for the commission of crimes.
These theories cite interaction with
people and experiences and exposure to
different element in the environment as
primary factors to criminality.
Social Learning Theories

• In general, social learning theories proposes that both criminal and

conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed by the
same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the
conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influences
such as reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation.
• The following are the Social Learning Theories:
1. Social Learning Theory
2. Differential Association
3. Differential Reinforcement
4. Neutralization Theory
 Social Learning Theory

• By psychologist Albert Bandura.

• This theory views that behavior is modeled through
observation, either directly through intimate contact with
others, or indirectly through media, interactions that are
regarded are copied, whereas those that are punished are
avoided.
• Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess (1966) developed the
Social Learning Theory to explain deviancy by combining
variables which encouraged delinquency (e.g. the social
pressure from delinquent peers) with variables that
discouraged delinquency (e.g. the parental response to
discovering delinquency in their children).
• Social Learning theory suggests that children who grow up in a home
where violence is a way of life may learn to believe that such behavior is
acceptable and rewarding.
• Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one
another, via observation, imitation, and modeling.
• If people observe positive, desired outcomes in the observed behavior,
they are more likely to model, imitate, and adopt the behavior themselves
 Differential Association Theory

• By Edwin Sutherland- The Dean of Modern

Criminology. He has been referred to as the
most important criminologist of the 20th
century
• This theory asserts that criminal behavior
is learned primarily within the
interpersonal groups.
• This theory maintains that criminal
behavior is learned, and it is learned the
same way any other behavior is learned:
through interpersonal communication and
social interaction in small, intimate groups.
• Definitions are the attitudes, rationalizations, or meanings that
one attaches to a given behavior that define the behavior as
good or bad, right or wrong, justified or unjustified, and
appropriate or inappropriate (Akers & Jensen, 2006).
• ‘The balance of learned criminal and anti-criminal definitions
determines whether one will be conforming or deviant with
respect to a given legal code.
• If the balance of definitions is favorable to abiding by the law,
the outcome is conformity; if violative definitions are in excess
criminal behavior is the result’ (Akers 1998, p. 27).
 Differential Reinforcement Theory

• Refers to the balance of past, present, and anticipated future rewards and
punishments for a given behavior (Akers & Jensen, 2006) and includes the reactions
and sanctions of all important social groups, especially those of peers and family,
but can also include other groups such as schools and churches (Akers et al.,
1979; Krohn, Skinner, Massey, & Akers, 1985). 
• Behavior are strengthened through:
• Rewards
• Avoidance of punishment
• Behavior are weakened through:
• Receiving punishment
• Loss of rewards
• Behaviors that are reinforced, either through
social rewards or through the avoidance of
social punishments, are more likely to be
repeated, whereas behaviors that elicit social
punishments are less likely to be repeated
(Akers, 2001).

“An act that is rewarded is repeated;

an act that is punished will be avoided.”
• Thus, through differential reinforcement, individuals are conditioned
to internalize the social norms that are valued by the group.
• Developed by Ronald Akers.
The Neutralization Theory

• Gresham Sykes (1922) advocated it.

• The theory maintains that an individual will obey or disobey societal
rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is
protected from hurt or destruction. People become law abiding if
they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are
not favorable to them.
• According to this theory, people know when they are doing
something wrong, however, they rationalize and justify their actions.
This rationalizing is what we called “neutralization”.
 Social Control Theories

• A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do people commit

criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These theories
assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and
seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.
• The following are theories of Social Control:
1. Containment Theory
2. Drift Theory
3. Self-Control Theory
4. Social Control Theory
5. Social Bond Theory
Containment Theory

• A broad analysis of the relationship between personal and social

controls is found in Walter Reckless (1899 – 1988) Containment
Theory.
• This theory is a form of control, which suggests that a series of both
internal and external factors contributes to criminal behavior .
• The Containment Theory assumes that for every individual there
exists a containing external structure and a protective internal
structure, both of which provide defense, protection or insulation
against crime or delinquency.

JBDavid
• Containment means the forces
within and outside the
individual that has the power to
influence his actions.
• Inner containments include
positive self-concept, tolerance
for frustration and an ability to
set realistic goals.
• Outer containments include
family.
Drift Theory

• This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and
forth between obeying and breaking the law.
• People can use techniques of neutralization as excuses to
break the law when other forms of social control are weak.
• When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float
back to law-abiding behavior.
• Developed by David Matza in 1964.

JBDavid
Self-Control Theory
• A specific type of control theory developed
in 1990 by Michael Gottfredson and Travis
Hirschi in which self-control is the key factor
in understanding criminal and deviant acts.
• Also known as the “General Theory of
Crime.”
• While control theory emphasizes the
importance of social bonds as an insulating
factor against criminal involvement, the
general theory of crime posits that low self-
control is a key factor underlying criminality.
Social Control/Social Bond Theory

• In criminology, Social Control Theory (or Social Bonding Theory) as represented in

the work of Travis Hirschi fits into the Positivist School, Neo-Classical School, and,
later, Right Realism.
• It proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds
self-control and reduces the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as
antisocial. It was derived from Functionalist theories of crime and proposes that
there are four types of control:
1. Direct
2. Indirect
3. Internal
4. Control through Needs Satisfaction
 1. Direct: by which punishment is threatened or
applied for wrongful behavior, and compliance is
rewarded by parents, family, and authority figures.
2. Indirect: by which a youth refrains from
delinquency through the conscience or superego.
The Four Types 3. Internal: by identification with those who
influence behaviour, say because his or her
of Control: delinquent act might cause pain and
disappointment to parents and others with whom
he or she has close relationships.
4. Control through needs satisfaction: if all an
individual's needs are met, there is no point in
criminal activity.
 Social Control/Social Bond Theory
• Travis Hirschi’s social bond theory asserts that ties
to family, school and other aspects of society serve
to diminish one’s propensity for deviant behaviour.
• All kids are potential law violators, but they are
kept under control by their relationship with
friends, parents, neighbors, teachers and
employers. Without these social ties or bonds, and
in the absence of sensitivity to and interest in
others, they would be free to commit criminal acts.
• Unlike other theories that seek to explain why
people engage in deviant behaviour, control
theories take the opposite approach, questioning
why people refrain from offending (Akers and
Sellars, 2004)
 • Attachment- Refers to a person’s sensitivity to
and interest in others.
• Those both within and outside of the family,
including friends, teachers, and co-workers
• Commitment- involves the time, energy, and
Elements of effort expended in conventional lines of action,
such as getting an education and saving money for
Social Bond the future.
• Involvement- Heavy involvement in conventional
activities leaves little time or opportunity for
illegal behavior
• Belief- People who live in the same social setting
often share common moral beliefs; they may
adhere to such values as sharing, sensitivity to the
rights of others, and admiration for the legal code.
 Social Reaction Theory/Labeling Theory
• Also called “Labeling Theory”
• Posits that society creates deviance through a system
of social control agencies that designate (or label)
certain individuals as delinquent, thereby stigmatizing
youths and encouraging them to accept this negative
personal identity.
• Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker
(1822 - 1982) are the advocates of the Labeling
Theory (or Social Reaction Theory) – the theory that
explains about social reaction to behavior.
• The theory maintains that the original cause of crime
cannot be known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal,
and behavior becomes criminal if it is labeled as such.
Sources

• http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/professionals/oyap/roots/volume5/ch
apter12_social_control.aspx
• R.J. Sampson, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences,
2001
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/differential-association