LASER Physics

Prof. S. S. Sikder
Department of Physics
Khulna University of Engineering & Technology
Khulna-9203, Bangladesh
E-mail: sssikder@yahoo.com & sssikder@phy.kuet.ac.bd
 LASER
* Recent research in Solid State Physics has revealed a new device called
‘LASER’ which means ‘Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation’.
•LASER works on the principle of quantum theory of radiation.
•When an electron in an orbit absorbs energy, it goes to an orbit of higher
energy level. When the electron jumps back to a stable orbit, it emits radiations in
the forms of electro-magnetic waves.
• The energy of each photon = hν.
•Towns and Schawlow in 1958 worked out the principle of a LASER is
similar that of ‘MASER’ which means ‘Micro wave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation’. Due to this reason LASER is also called ‘ Optical
MASER’.
 Optical MASER’s

* Stimulated emission be used an amplifying mechanism, devices employing

this principle have become common in the microwave and optical regions of the
spectrum.

* The original works led to the construction of an amplifier using ammonia

gas, in which the inverted system was prepared by the electromagnetic
separation of the excited ammonia molecules. The device was called a
MASER, which is an acronym for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission in the optical regions of the spectrum, an additional acronym came
into use – “LASER” for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
* The extension from the microwave region of the optical portion of the spectrum
of the use of stimulated emission as an amplifying mechanism followed an explicit
proposal to use a 3 – level energy system for a MASER. In this suggestion,
pumping or inversion was to be accomplished by an external energy source and
stimulated emission was to occur between two of the three levels.

* The angular divergence of the beam should be diffraction limited by the

cavity aperture. Although clearly predicted, the output radiations of an optical
MASER in the formed a well collimated beam of radiation is one of its most
striking properties. The isolation of single oscillating modes from LASER’s is
now common practice. Accompanying the appearance of the directional beam, the
spectral line width decreases. Within the narrow beam width of the output, the
high radiation level occurs. Using Nd3+ doped glasses, LASER’s have been
constructed with peak power outputs of ~ 1012 watts at 1.06μm for ~ 310-12 sec.
 * At present, approximately 1000 different LASER wavelength have been
identified. The range of wavelengths extends from 2358Ǻ in Ne 10 to 372.80μm in
diethyl amine. The distribution of the 350 discrete wavelengths from 2600Ǻ to 1μm
is such that almost every increment of 100Ǻ has several LASER lines. The coverage
is not as dense from 1 to 10μm and from 10 to 370μm only 70 lines in H 2O, D2O,

NH2, Ne, CN, BrCN and diethyl amine have been observed.

Input Energy of LASER

Simplest form a LASER consists of a gain medium, a feedback mechanism, a

source of input energy a method of coupling between the input energy and the
actual gain medium, and a method of extracting power. The forms of input
energy are:
(i) Optical energy from gas discharge or incandescent sources included
Pump lamps. The first pump lamps used were the Xe flash lamps.
Later lamps are included mercury vapor, tungsten, ribbons, the sun,
light-emitting diodes and shock waves.
(ii) Electric discharges in the gaseous materials itself.

(iii) Thermal excitation of one species followed by excitation of the

actual gain materials.
(iv) Direct electrical point injection of carriers in semiconductor junctions.
(v) Electron-beam excitation of solids, in these cases the incident electron-beam
energy varies from ~50,000-300,000 electron volts.

(vi) Chemical dissociation into excited states.

(vii) Exothermic chemical reaction producing molecules are in excited states.
(viii) Thermodynamic processes e.g. rapid expansion of gases.
 History of LASER
LASER is the enormous difference between the ``character of its light and the
light from other sources such as the sun, a flame or an incandescent lamp. The
most striking features of LASER are:
(i) its directionality
(ii) its high intensity
(iii) its extraordinary monochromacity
(iv) its high degree of coherence.

Directionality
The directionality of LASER beams is usually expressed in terms of the full angle
beam divergence, which is twice the angle that the outer edge of the beam makes
with the axis of the beam.
 1
The strength of the beam has dropped to e

times its value at the centre when a beam with planar wavefront radiates from
an aperture of diameter (d), the beam propagates as a parallel beam for a
d2
distance of about


which is sometimes called Rayleigh range and then begins to spread linearly with
distance because of the unavoidable effects of diffraction.

of the far field beam is related to the aperture diameter d by

The angular spread 


 
d

For a typical LASER, the beam divergence is less than 0.01milliradian. That is, the
beam spreads less than 0.01mm for every meter output in a LASER beam is many
millions of times more concentrated than the best search light available.
 Intensity
The light from a lamp streams out more or less uniformly in all
directions. If we look at a 100 watt lamp filament at a distance of
30cm, the power entering the eye is less than a thousand of a watt. Let
us compare the photon output of a LASER with that of a very hot
body. The power ouput from a small gas LASER is ~ 10-3W, while
that from a pulsed solid state LASER may be as high as 109W. Since
one photon of visible light represent ~ 10-19J of energy. The photon
output of LASER’s range over:

LASERphoton P
  1016 to1028
sec 
 The amount of energy emitted by a black body per unit area per unit time in the
its intensity is given by
and   d
range of frequency between 
1
e , T d    , T cd
4

1  3 1
 2 2 
d
4  c e KT  1
is the radiation density for the band width given by Planck’s formula
  , T 

 3 1
  , T d  2 3  d
 c e KT  1

Thermalphoton 2 1
 2 2  d
sec 4 c
e KT  1

Let us assume the band width of a line in the visible region, λ = 6000A 0, to be
1000A0 and the temperature to be 1000K.
   2  2  5 1014
2
d   1015
12
Substituting these values in the formula obtained above, we find the emission
from an area equal to 1 Sq-cm of the hot body to be

Thermalphotons  1012
Sq  cm  sec

Monochromacity
The light emitted by a LASER is vastly more monochromatic than that of any
conventional monochromatic source. An inspection of a line emitted by the latter
shows that it is never perfectly sharp, but it spreads over a frequency range of the
order of thousands of megacycles per second.
The degree of monochromacity of light, we characterize the spread in frequency

of a line by the line width
The degree of non-monochromacity of a wave may be defined and its relative band
width given by 
 
0

ν0 is the central frequency of the light beam. Absolute monochromacity for which   0

is unattainable goal

The LASER light has a higher degree of monochromacity. The output from a
LASER is very nearly a perfectly monochromatic sine wave with a very small
bandwidth about 1kcycle/sec. The output from a high quality stable gas LASER,
locked to the centre of the absorption line has a bandwidth,   500 Hz

  10 8 A 0
at   6000 A 0

Even poor quality solid state LASER can have a band width of   10 9 Hz
  10 2 A 0
For example, the line width of a line emitted by ruby, ordinary is 3A 0 while the line width of
the LASER with the same material is 510-4A0.
 Coherence
•LASER radiation is characterized by a high degree of ordering of the light field
than the other sources.
•In other words, it has a high degree of coherence of LASER emission makes it
possible to realize a tremendous spatial concentration of light power, such as
1013W in a space with linear dimensions of only 1μm. Radiation of such intensity
can cut metal, produce micro welding, drill microscopic holes through diamond
crystals and so on.

* The monochromacity, directionality and intensity of LASER light are making

possible a wide range of scientific investigations that would have been
unimaginable without them….. even so, we are still sometimes limited by the
properties of available LASER’s, and have to try to extend LASER technology.
• Coherence is one of the unique properties of laser light.
• It arises from the stimulated emission process which provides the
amplification. Since a common stimulus triggers the emission events which
provide the amplified light, the emitted photons are "in step" and have a
definite phase relation to each other.
• This coherence is described in terms of temporal coherence and spatial
coherence, both of which Ordinary light is not coherent because it comes
from independent atoms which emit on time scales of about 10-8 seconds.
• There is a degree of coherence in sources like the mercury green line and
some other useful spectral sources, but their coherence does not approach that
of a laser.
The coherence standpoint at spontaneous radiation emitted, for example, from
thermal radiation sources, the following features:
(i)Individual atoms emit photons, spontaneously independent of each other.
(ii)Emission of atoms is isotropic i.e. generally proceeds with equal probability in
all directions.

An important property of LASER radiation is its coherence, under which is meant

the relationship between the phases of oscillation at different positions in space
and at various moments of time. Now consider two examples:
(1)Time coherence
(2)Spatial coherence
 Generation of Coherent Radiation (Lasing)
If the sun of energies of a signal, Es and stimulated emission, Ee, is higher

than the energy loss Eloss and energy El given up to the load,
Es + Ee > Eloss + El ,

• The quantum system enters the mode of self excitation and begins to operate as a
quantum oscillator (LASER), in which oscillation are also built up in the absence
of an external signal under the action of random spontaneously emitted quanta.
• The optical range within the spectrum interval extending from the ultraviolet to
the sub-millimetric wave region: λ = 0.1 to 800μm.

LASER excites oscillations only at resonant frequencies satisfying the condition


L  n 
2
 The bandwidth  of each of these waves is a function of the Q-factor of an
optical cavity and can be rather short (less than 100Hz). The frequency stability
depends on the stability of the dimension L of the cavity.

Parallel Light from a LASER

The light from a typical laser emerges in an extremely thin beam with very little divergence.

Another way of saying this is that the beam is highly "collimated". An ordinary laboratory

helium-neon laser can be swept around the room and the red spot on the back wall seems

about the same size at that on a nearby wall.

 Characteristics Properties of a LASER Light
(i) Coherent: Different parts of the laser beam are related to each other in phase.
These phase relationships are maintained over long enough time so that interference
effects may be seen or recorded photographically. This coherence property is what
makes holograms possible. The light is coherent with the waves all exactly in phase
with one another.
(ii) Monochromatic: The light is very nearly monochromatic. Laser light consists of
essentially one wavelength, having its origin in stimulated emission from one set of
atomic energy levels.
(iii) Collimated: Because of bouncing back between mirrored ends of a laser
cavity, those paths which sustain amplification must pass between the mirrors many
times and be very nearly perpendicular to the mirrors. As a result, laser beams are very
narrow and do not spread very much.
(iv) The LASER light beam is extremely intense. A LASER beam diverges hardly
at all.
 Quantum Processes

Quantum properties dominate the fields of atomic and molecular physics.

Radiation is quantized such that for a given frequency of radiation, there can be
only one value of quantum energy for the photons of that radiation. The energy
levels of atoms and molecules can have only certain quantized values. Transitions
between these quantized states occur by the photon processes absorption, emission,
and stimulated emission. All of these processes require that the photon energy
given by the Planck relationship is equal to the energy separation of the
participating pair of quantum energy states.
 Three Kinds of transition involving electromagnetic radiation are possible
between two energy levels E1 and E2 in atom:
(i)Induced absorption
(ii)Spontaneous emission
(iii)Stimulated emission
Induced Absorption
Taking the electron transitions associated with visible and ultraviolet interactions with
matter as an example, absorption of a photon will occur only when the quantum energy of
the photon precisely matches the energy gap between the initial and final states. In the
interaction of radiation with matter, if there is no pair of energy states such that the photon
energy can elevate the system from the lower to the upper state, then the matter will be
transparent to that radiation.

If the atom is initially in the lower state E 1, it can be raised to E2 by absorbing a photon of
energy
E2 – E1 = hν This process is called induced absorption.
Einstein postulated that the induced absorption transition rate was proportional to the
number of atoms with electron in the lower state and to the density of radiation energy
incident on these atoms.
dN 12
 B12  21 N 1
dt 1

where N1 = Number of atoms with electrons in the n = 1 state

 21
= density of electromagnetic radiation with energy equal to the energy difference
between the two states and B12 = Einstein coefficient for induced absorption.
 Spontaneous Emission
Energy levels associated with molecules, atoms and nuclei are in general discrete,
quantized energy levels and transitions between those levels typically involve the
absorption or emission of photons. Electron energy levels have been used as the
example here, but quantized energy levels for molecular vibration and rotation
also exist. Transitions between vibrational quantum states typically occur in the
infrared and transitions between rotational quantum states are typically in the
microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The atom is initially in the upper state E2, it can drop to E1 by emitting a photon
of energy hν; this is spontaneous emission.
 Einstein postulated that the spontaneous transition rates were proportional to the
number of atoms with electrons in the upper state. dN 21
 A21 N 2
dt S

where A21 = Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission.

 Stimulated Emission
•If an electron is already in an excited state (an upper energy level, in contrast to its lowest
possible level or "ground state"), then an incoming photon for which the quantum energy is
equal to the energy difference between its present level and a lower level can "stimulate" a
transition to that lower level, producing a second photon of the same energy .
•Two photons instead of one move on. The excited atom emits light waves in step with the
incoming wave and increases its intensity. This is known as stimulated emission of
radiation. The radiated light waves are exactly in phase with the incident ones, so that the
result is an enhanced beam of coherent light.
The transition rate for stimulated emission is proportional to N 2 and to the density
of radiation incident on the atoms with energy equal to the energy difference
between the two states.dN 21  B21  21 N 2
dt S

where B21 = The Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission. After making the above
assumptions, Einstein showed that for thermal equilibrium the coefficients of induced
absorption and stimulated emission are equal.
  B21 = B12

The relationship between the coefficient of spontaneous emission and the

coefficient of stimulated emission is
A21 8E 2  E1 

B21 h 2c 3
where E2 – E1 is the energy difference between the two states.
When a sizable population of electrons resides in upper levels, this condition is
called a "population inversion", and it sets the stage for stimulated emission of
multiple photons.

This is the precondition for the light amplification which occurs in a laser, and
since the emitted photons have a definite time and phase relation to each other,
the light has a high degree of coherence.
 Population Inversion
The achievement of a significant population inversion in atomic or molecular
energy states is a precondition for LASER action. Electrons will normally reside
in the lowest available energy state. They can be elevated to excited states by
absorption, but no significant collection of electrons can be accumulated by
absorption alone since both spontaneous emission and stimulated emission will
bring them back down.

Under ordinary conditions of thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in the

higher energy state is considerably smaller than the number in the lower energy
state. By Boltzmann low
 N2   E2  E1  KT
e
N1

i.e. N2 < N1. Hence there is very little stimulated emission compared with
absorption. The atoms be initially excited so that there are more atoms in the higher
energy state E2 than in the lower energy state E1. We then have N2 > N1. This is
known as population inversion.

Pumping
The method of producing population inversion is called pumping. One type of
pumping is optical pumping. Atoms in ground state are pumped to state E 3 by
photon energy
h   E 3  E1
The excited atoms then undergo non-radiative transitions with a transfer of energy
to the lattice thermal motion, to the level E2. There will be more atoms in the higher

metastable energy state E2 than in the ground state E1, we have a “population
inversion”.
Atoms in the metastable state E2 are now bombarded by photons of energy hν = E2 –

E1, resulting in a stimulated emission giving an intense coherent beam in the

direction of the incident photons.
Different Types of LASER’s
In this chapter, we will describe some specific LASER systems whose characteristics can be
considered as representative of the entire category of LASER’s. Four types of LASER:
(i)Solid State LASER’s
(ii)Gas LASER’s
(iii)Semiconductor LASER’s
(iv)Liquid-, Dye- and Chemical LASER’s
 Solid State LASER’s
In the solid substance used in LASER devices, the active material is present in
concentration less than one percent. For LASER action to be possible, the ions of the
active material will have to be excited to the proper upper level which is usually
accomplished by optical pumping. The first successful LASER action was achieved in
1960 by Maiman using a crystal of ruby as a LASER material and had earlier carefully
analyzed ruby, to determine whether or not the required criteria for LASER oscillations
could be satisfied. In one of his papers he had reported his observations on the florescence
relaxation processes in this crystal.

Crystalline Solids
The first LASER Cr3+.Al2O3 possessed all the general properties of this large class
of LASER’s. They are characterized by impurities in low concentrations (~ 10 -3 →
10-2) and fluorescent emissions between 0.6→ 2μm. Excitation of the fluorescent
levels is through absorption bands lying at higher photon energies. At this time the
two most commonly encountered are the Cr3+:Al2O3 and Nd3+:YAG.
 Ruby LASER
The ruby LASER is the first type of LASER actually constructed, first demonstrated in 1960
by T. H. Maiman. The ruby mineral (corundum) is aluminum oxide with a small amount
(about 0.05%) of chromium which gives it its characteristic pink or red color by absorbing
green and blue light.
The ruby LASER is used as a pulsed LASER, producing red light at 694.3 nm. After
receiving a pumping flash from the flash tube, the LASER light emerges for as long as the
excited atoms persist in the ruby rod, which is typically about a millisecond.
A pulsed ruby LASER was used for the famous LASER ranging experiment which was
conducted with a corner reflector placed on the Moon by the Apollo astronauts. This
determined the distance to the Moon with an accuracy of about 15 cm .
The ruby rod is crystal of Aluminum oxide (Al 2O3) doped with 0.05% Chromium oxide

(Cr2O3), so that some of aluminum atoms in the crystal lattice are replaced by Cr 3+ ions.

The Cr ions excited from level E1 to level E3 by absorption of light of wavelength 550nm
from the Xenon flash tube. The excited ions quickly undergo non-radioactive transitions
with a transfer of energy to the lattice thermal motion, to the level E 2. The E2 level is a

metastable state with a lifetime of about 310-3sec. Now the population of the E2 level
 Neodymium-YAG LASER
An example of a solid-state laser, the neodymium-YAG uses the Nd 3+ ion to dope the
yttrium-aluminum-garnet (YAG) host crystal to produce the triplet geometry which
makes population inversion possible. Neodymium-YAG lasers have become very
important because they can be used to produce high powers. Such lasers have been
constructed to produce over a kilowatt of continuous laser power at 1065 nm and can
achieve extremely high powers in a pulsed mode.
Neodymium-YAG lasers are used in pulse mode in laser oscillators for the
production of a series of very short pulses for research with fem to second time
resolution.
 Gas LASER’s
In gases, since there are no surroundings to perturb the atom, the energy levels
of the atom are extremely narrow, of the order of 0.01Ǻ and, hence, wideband
optical pumping is ineffective. Only an insignificant fraction of the optical
power will be utilized for the excitation of the active centers and the major part
of it will be wasted in heating the gas. A sharp emission line coinciding with the
absorption line of the active centers, therefore, is necessary to excite the atoms.
This creates a problem in finding an optical source for pumping. For this reason
optical pumping is not generally used in gases. Instead, atoms are lifted to the
higher level by electrical pumping.

Noble Gas LASER

One important class of LASER’s consists of the electrically excited noble gas
LASER’s, and of these the most common is the He-Ne. In the He-Ne LASER
excitation of the Ne occurs through collisions with excited He atoms.
Specially identified are only three of the more than 100 LASER lines originating
from the Ne atom covering the range 0.5939 to 120μm. The details of construction
of a LASER operating at these wavelengths involve pressures, discharge currents,
tube diameter, and choice of cavity optics. However, typical parameters for 6328A 0
or 1.15μm are:
(i)He3:Ne ratio, 10:1; total pressure 2.5 torrs
(ii)Inside diameter 20mm
(iii)Radius of curvature of mirrors, 1m
(iv)Current ~ 10mA; voltage ~ 3kV
(v)Output ~ 5mW
(vi)Mirror separation ~ 1m.
 Helium-Neon LASER
* The most common and inexpensive gas laser, the helium-neon laser is
usually constructed to operate in the red at 632.8 nm. It can also be constructed to
produce laser action in the green at 543.5 nm and in the infrared at 1523 nm.
* One of the excited levels of helium at 20.61 eV is very close to a level in
neon at 20.66 eV, so close in fact that upon collision of a helium and a neon
atom, the energy can be transferred from the helium to the neon atom.
Helium-neon lasers are common in the introductory physics laboratories, but they
can still be dangerous! According to Garmire, an unfocused 1-mW HeNe laser
has a brightness equal to sunshine on a clear day (0.1 watt/cm 2) and is just as
dangerous to stare at directly. The helium gas in the laser tube provides the
pumping medium to attain the necessary population inversion for laser action.
 Semiconductor LASER’s
An important class of broadly tunable LASER’s which have proved to be very
useful particularly in optical communication and optical-computer design,
namely, the semiconductor LASER’s. This is the 3rd. historical development in
LASER’s. The original concept dates from 1961, when Bernard and
Duraffouring and Bosov independently suggested that stimulated emission of
photons may be obtained in semiconductor materials from transmission
between conduction and valence bands. Since then, during the last twenty years
or so, the semiconductor LASER has grown and developed into a whole range
of sophisticated opto-electronic devices.

The first observations of stimulated emission were obtained from forward

biased GaAs diodes. After this initial work other schemes of pumping were
employed [ e.g. optical pumping electron beam and avalanche breakdown].
LASER action (with the resultant monochromatic and coherent light output)
can be achieved in a p-n junction formed by two doped gallium arsenide layers.
The two ends of the structure need to be optically flat and parallel with one end
mirrored and one partially reflective. The length of the junction must be
precisely related to the wavelength of the light to be emitted. The junction is
forward biased and the recombination process produces light as in the LED
(incoherent). Above a certain current threshold the photons moving parallel to
the junction can stimulate emission and initiate laser action.
 
Type Peak Power Wavelength Application
GaAs 5 mW 840 nm CD Players
AlGaAs 50 mW 760 nm Laser printers
GaInAsP 20 mW 1300 nm Fiber communications

Free-Electron Laser
The radiation from a free-electron laser is produced from free electrons which are forced to
oscillate in a regular fashion by an applied field. They are therefore more like synchrotron
light sources or microwave tubes than like other lasers. They are able to produce highly
coherent, collimated radiation over a wide range of frequencies. The magnetic field
arrangement which produces the alternating field is commonly called a "wiggler" magnet.

The free-electron laser is a highly tunable device which has been used to
generate coherent radiation from 10^-5 to 1 cm in wavelength. In some parts of
this range, they are the highest power source. Particularly in the mm wave range,
the FELs exceed all other sources in coherent power. FELs involve relativistic
electron beams propagating in a vacuum and can be tuned continuously, filling
in frequency ranges which are not reachable by other coherent sources
Applications of free-electron lasers are envisioned in isotope separation, plasma
heating for nuclear fusion, long-range, high resolution radar, and particle
acceleration in accelerators.
 Dye LASER
The unique property of the organic dye LASER’s that makes them of interest is
their ability to be tuned in frequency over portions of the visible spectrum. By
using variations frequency selective devices within the cavity (e.g. etalon gratings
or prisms) oscillation can be turned over ~ 500A0. These organic materials, in
general have two sets of electronic gas states, the singlet and triplet states with the
lower level a singlet. The optical properties are determined by these levels. In
transition between vibrational sublevels, the single state has been observed to
‘lase’. A quenching action is built levels, in by the absorption of the triplet levels.
Pumping has been accomplished with either other LASER’s or specially designed
short flash lamps.
Tunable LASER operation over a nearly continuous range of frequencies has
been attained with the molecules of certain organic dyes. The molecules of
these dyes have a large number of spectral lines and each of them has a
characteristic spread of frequencies which is large compared to the spread of
gaseous atomic spectral lines. With the overlap of these lines in the dyes, the
dye laser can be tuned to produce laser action for LASER spectroscopy.

A widely used dye is rhodamine 6G, commonly referred to as Rh6G. It is

one of the most highly fluorescing materials known and was used by early
astronauts to mark the position of their capsules when landing in the ocean.
The unique properties which have made it useful in such exotic applications
have also made it popular as a laser medium. Another dye used for
spectroscopy is known as "ring dye" and is capable of essentially continuous
tuning.
 The dye laser medium is typically in liquid form and the dye is circulated
continuously through the laser chamber to keep it from being limited by
saturation effects. The dye may be pumped by flash lamps or by another laser
such as an argon ion LASER.

Chemical LASER’s
The excitation of atoms in the LASER systems described so far was
accomplished by optical pumping or by an ele4ctric discharge. The idea that
intrigued a number of investigators for some years was whether the energy
released in chemical reactions could be used for pumping.
The chemical reactions that are most promising for LASER actions are
those which exothermic and are of the type

A + BC → AB+ + C
 Various proposals have been to utilize the energy of exothermic chemical
reactions to produce inverted populations of molecules. Examples of such
reactions are the combination of H and F to form HF. Reporting observation of
LASER action near 2.8μm in HF an in the transfer of energy obtained from the
exothermic reaction of H and F forming HF to the CO2 molecule.
e.g., by introducing sulphur hexafluoride in the discharge tube along with
the mixture of H2 and F2 which gives rise to the following reaction:

SF6 + e → SF5 +
F + e;
Or by flash photo dissociation of species such as CIF 3; or by chemical reaction,
e.g.

NO + F2
→ NOF + F
 The first reaction that produces hydrogen-fluoride in the excited state is
F + H2 → HF+ + F
This reaction is exothermic by 31.56 k cal/mole. It is followed by the
reaction which restores the fluorine atom, e.g.
H + F2 → HF+ + F,
With heat of reaction 98 k cal/mole.
Application of LASER’s
LASERs in Physics

Ether drift: The LASER were mounted at right angles on an extremely rigid
support. The experiment was repeated by turning the LASERs in different
directions with respect to the earth’s motion. The apparatus was sensitive
enough to detect a change in the velocity of light as small as three
millimeters per second. Even with this high precision, no anisotropy in
the velocity of light associated with the motion of the earth was detected.
Absolute rotation of the earth: By placing mirrors at the four corners of a square,
the light can be made to circulate in both directions around the four sides
of the square. As long as the square is at rest, the time taken for a
complete circuit is the same in either motion.
Counting of atoms: The monochromacity, directionality and intensity of
LASER light have made possible a wide range of scientific investigations
which would not have been possible without LASER’s with the modern
pulsed LASER. Rutherford’s idea of “counting atoms” becomes entirely
practicable, and individual atoms can now be counted by several different
methods.
Isotope separation: LASER have been successfully used to separate the isotopic
species of an element present in an isotopic mixture. The technique used of
isotope separation in the immense importance for nuclear power
engineering.
Plasma: A plasma with very high electrons density, 1020 cm-3 or more, may be
produced by focusing a Q-spoiled gaint pube ruby or neodymium
LASER on a solid target with a peak LASER power of the order of 100
megawatts. Very high electron density LASER methods have been
devised to determine electron densities and temperatures of gas
discharge plasmas by measuring either the refractive index or the
spectral line width.
Thermonuclear fusion: The fusion released at such a high temperature is
much greater than the energy lost by radiation. The LASER has the
potential to generate very high temperature and pressure required to
initiate a fusion reaction and to concentrate large amount of energy in a
small volume and, hence can be extremely useful tool in bringing about
a fusion reaction.
LASERs in Chemistry
(i) LASER light provides the most precise and controllable means for this purpose.
With a sufficiently intense LASER radiation, properly tuned to specific resonance, it is
possible to break the molecules where we want to break them.
(ii) The pulsed photo acoustic Raman spectroscopy (PARS) which uses deposited in a
gas sample by the process of stimulated Raman scattering. The analysis of mixtures of CH 4

in N2, CO2 in N2 and N2O in N2 has been carried out using this method.
(iii) Some ingenious radio chemical methods have recently been suggested that might
make it possible to detected the small number of atoms produced by interaction of low
energy solar neutrinos
(iv) Infrared CO2 LASER’s have also been used to deposited metal structures about 50
microns wide depositions. These techniques hold a great promise for dealing with the
present difficulties and future needs of microelectronic design and fabrication.
 
 LASER’s in Communication

The four techniques commonly used for transmitting a large volume of massages over a
long distance are:
(i) Coaxial cable system: The cable consists of a copper tube about
3
8
inch in diameter with a single copper-wire-conductor in the centre. The cables carry
radio waves with frequencies from 500,000 to 20,000,000 cycles per second.
Amplifying equipment is located every two to four miles along the cable.

(ii) Microwave-radio relay: The relay towers are located some 20 to 30 miles
apart. The system employs microwave radiation in the frequency band between 1
billion to 10 billion cycles per second.
(iii) Wave guide: A simple hollow tube about two inches in diameter is used as
a wave guide to transmit millimeter waves with frequencies between 30 billion to
90 billion cycles per second.
.

(iv) Artificial earth satellite: This broad communication operates wit in the
microwave-radio band. The main principle involved in these long distance
communication systems in the principle of ‘multiplexing’ i.e. the simultaneous
transmission of different messages over the same path ways. The frequency band
required for a channel for transmitting an individual human voice extends from
200 to 4000 cycles per second. The information contained in this frequency band
can be transmitted in any band that is 3800 cycles per second wide, regardless of
the region of the sprectrum in which it is located.
 LASER’s in Atmospheric Optics
(i) Atmospheric optics uses LASER for the remote probing of the atmosphere
including the measurement of traces of pollutant gases, temperature, water vapour
concentration, sometimes at ranges greater than five to ten miles away.
(ii) LASER radar or ‘lidar’ as it is known has proved to be powerful tool for
investigation of a velocity of atmospheric feature. It employs a pulsed lASER as a source
of light energy. Light that is back scattered by congestion of matter is detected by a photo
detector. The distance of the scattering matter is calculated from the time the pulse takes to
go to the matter and return back to the system. Lider thus, provides the distribution of
atmospheric pollutants in different vertical sections
 LASER’s in Astronomy
(i) Radio telescope has now an additional accessory- a ruby LASER, with the
help of which the astronomers have been able to extend their range of observation.
Radio astronomers have found LASER’s extremely valuable for amplifying very faint
radio signals from space.
(ii) With the help of LASER’s it is possible to bear the bursts of light and
radiation waves from stars which emitted them over a millions of years ago.

LASER’s in Surveying and Ranging

Helium-neon and semiconductor lasers have become standard parts of the field
surveyor's equipment. A fast laser pulse is sent to a corner reflector at the point
to be measured and the time of reflection is measured to get the distance.
Ranging include in three points:
(i)The position of a distant object can be determined with the help of a range
finder, in which a signal from a LASER switches on a counting circuit and the
signal returned from the target terminates the count. The result is a digital count
that can be calibrated directly in distance.
(ii)Optical range finders not only afford accurate ranging but also make possible
the determination of the size and shape of the object and its orientation.
(iii)The LASER beam illuminates a small area at the surface of the target. Any
fluorescence induced by the absorption of the LASER light is detected and
analyzed by the receiver. The nature of the target is judged from the strength and
spectral distribution of the fluorescence signal.
 LASER’s in Biology
(i) The ability of LASER beams to concentrate high power density of
light at a focal point has opened a new vista of micro Raman spectroscopic
analysis, which enables one to extend such studies to biological and
biomedical samples available only in very small quantities.
(ii) The measurements of Brillion spectra can be related to the intrinsic
molecular properties. Using a single-mode argon-ion LASER and triple-pass
Fabry-Perot interferometer, Brillion scattering spectra of a wide range of
biological materials were obtained by Vaughan and Randall. From the
Brillion spectra measurements of the biological fibres collagen and keratin,
synthetic polypeptides and material from the lens and cornea of the eye,
coupled with density measurements, values of elastic module were deduced.
 
 LASER’s in Medical
(i) Surgery: The highly collimated beam of a LASER can be further focused to a
microscopic dot of extremely high energy density. This makes it useful as a cutting and
cauterizing instrument.LASER’s are used for photocoagulation of the retina to halt retinal
hemorrhaging and for the tacking of retinal tears. Higher power lasers are used after cataract
surgery if the supportive membrane surrounding the implanted lens becomes milky. Photo
disruption of the membrane often can cause it to draw back like a shade, almost instantly
restoring vision. A focused LASER can act as an extremely sharp scalpel for delicate
surgery, cauterizing as it cuts. ("Cauterizing" refers to long-standing medical practices of
using a hot instrument or a high frequency electrical probe to singe the tissue around an
incision, sealing off tiny blood vessels to stop bleeding.) The cauterizing action is
particularly important for surgical procedures in blood-rich tissue such as the liver.
LASER’s has been used to make incisions half a micron wide
(ii) Medicine: LASER radiation is often used in controlling hemorrhage. Argon ion and
CO2 LASER’s are common sources in the treatment of lever and lunges and for elimination
of moles and tumors developing on the skin tissues. LASER’s are now increasingly used in
therapy and also in stomatology. They can selectively destroy tissues of the tooth affected
by ovaries. New types of surgery with ultraviolet excimer LASER’s and high powered
pulsed neodymium LASER energy transmitted through an optical fiber is now in the
treatment of liver cancer.
 LASER’s in Welding and Cutting
(i) The highly collimated beam of a LASER can be further focused to a

microscopic dot of extremely high energy density for welding and cutting.
(ii) The automobile industry makes extensive use of carbon dioxide LASER’s
with powers up to several kilowatts for computer controlled welding on auto
assembly lines.
(iii) Garmire points out an interesting application of CO2 lasers to the welding
of stainless steel handles on copper cooking pots. A nearly impossible task for
conventional welding because of the great difference in thermal conductivities
between stainless steel and copper, it is done so quickly by the laser that the
thermal conductivities are irrelevant.
 LASER’s in the Garment Industry

(i) LASER cutters are credited with keeping the U.S. garment industry
competitive in the world market. Computer controlled laser garment cutters can
be programmed to cut out 400 size 6 and then 700 size 9 garments - and that
might involve just a few cuts. The programmed cutter can cut dozens to
hundreds of thicknesses of cloth, and can cut out every piece of the garment in
a single run.
(ii) The usefulness of the LASER for such cutting operations comes from the
fact that the beam is highly collimated and can be further focused to a
microscopic dot of extremely high energy density for cutting
 LASER’s in Heat Treatment
Heat treatments for hardening or annealing have been long practiced in
metallurgy. But lasers offer some new possibilities for selective heat treatments
of metal parts. For example, lasers can provide localized heat treatments such as
the hardening of the surfaces of automobile camshafts. These shafts are
manufactured to high precision, and if the entire camshaft is heat treated, some
warping will inevitably occur. But the working surfaces of the cams can be
heated quickly with a carbon dioxide laser and hardened without appreciably
affecting the remainder of the shaft, preserving the precision of manufacture.

LASER’s in Barcode Scanners

Supermarket scanners typically use helium-neon lasers to scan the universal barcodes to
identify products. The laser beam bounces off a rotating mirror and scans the code, sending
a modulated beam to a light detector and then to a computer which has the product
information stored. Semiconductor lasers can also be used for this purpose.
 LASER’s in Industry
(i) The precision properties of LASER light have been of immense help in industry,
particularly in testing the quality of optical components: lenses, prisms etc. Accuracy in
the measurement of the sizes of physical quantities is considerably increased. The length
of a meter bar can now be measured by an automatic fringe counting method.
(ii) LASER’s have been used as light sources for telephoto pictures, pulsed Q-switched
LASER’s are suitable for technical motion picture photography. Ellis and Fourney
obtained pictures of bubble formation at the rate of 200,000 frames per second with a Q-
switched ruby LASER. The spiky output from a normal ruby LASER has been found to
be useful in high speed photography and from a moving object to be recorded on a
photographic plate.
(iii) Use of a high-power source of relatively narrow-band radiation, such as free electron
LASER, is in industrial chemistry, to supply energy to specific reactions.
(iv) Finger-prints can be detected under LASER light where the normal method of
obtaining finger prints through dusting powder is ineffective. Likely that people carry
some kind of fluorescent contaminant on hands, picked up from minute traces of ink,
paints, etc. Blue light of an Ar-ion LASER has detected at suspected finger prints. Latent
finger prints emit a part of the beam energy as yellow-light fluorescence. The LASER
technique can also be used for detection and analysis of order finger prints on, say,
documents, currency bills, cloths, etc. Finger prints contain ultra minute quantities of
stable amino acids, which when treated with certain chemical become fluorescent.