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Validity
Validity refers to whether the researchers actually
measured what they wanted to measure
In general, VALIDITY is an indication of how
sound your research is.
Types of Validity
Types of validity
 Conclusion/Statistical validity
 Internal validity
 Construct validity
 External validity
Conclusion/Statistical Validity:
We say that a measure is statistically valid when we
can demonstrate that they did not arise by chance.

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Construct Validity:
Construct validity refers to how well the study’s result
(or data) support the underlying principles relevant to
the work. Construct validity would be in question
when the evidence can be explained in more than one
way; that is according to more than one hypothesis or
theory.

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Internal Validity:
Internal validity deals with the concern whether there
was causality at play. In other words; “Was the
independent variable and not some extraneous
variable responsible for the observed changes in the
dependent variable?”.
There are many factors that can interfere with
internal validity. These are collectively called
confounding factors. We must minimize the effect of
these factors in order to increase the internal validity
of our work.

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Internal Validity

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External Validity:
External validity refers to the degree to which we are
able to generalize the results of a study t o other
subjects, conditions, environments, times and place.
To make a generalization from the sample to any
population, the sample must be an adequate and
acceptable sample of THAT population.

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External Validity

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Reliability
“…the degree to which a test or measure produces the
same scores when applied in the same circumstances…”
(Nelson 1997)

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Reliability
Reliability is the extent to which an experiment, test,
or any measuring procedure yields the same result on
repeated trials.

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Validity and Reliabilty
Even if a test is reliable, it may not provide a valid measure.
Let’s imagine a bathroom scale that consistently tells you
that you weigh 130 pounds. The reliability (consistency) of
this scale is very good, but it is not accurate (valid) because
you actually weigh 145 pounds (perhaps you re-set the scale
in a weak moment)!
Since teachers, parents, and school districts make decisions
about students based on assessments (such as grades,
promotions, and graduation), the validity inferred from the
assessments is essential --even more crucial than the
reliability. Also, if a test is valid, it is almost always reliable.

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Not Reliable or Valid

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Reliable but not Valid

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Reliable and Valid

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Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group problem-solving/ creativity
technique, in which a group of people uses their
collective intelligence to approach a creative problem.
This technique inspires people to come up with
creative ideas.
Brainstorming sessions should be used at the very
beginning of a project and should address a specific
question.
Brainstorming
Goes By
This technique is also known as: storm ideas, creativity
and brainstorming, idea generation or creative thinking.
Variations
Brainstorming sessions, through poor facilitation or lack
focus, can be less productive than expected. The six
thinking hats technique, created by Edward de Bono, can
overcome this problem. When wearing one hat at a given
point of time, a group can focus on one aspect of the issue
at hand, increasing the productivity of the brainstorming
session.
Brainstorming
Using the Technique
Define a problem or opportunity and craft a specific
question.
Identify participants: the group can include 8 to 16
people. Not every group member needs to be an
expert on the specific question.
Participants should be trained in advance, so that
they understand the brainstorming process prior to
tackling the major issue.
Set a time limit.
Brainstorming
Using the Technique
Ask participants to shout out ideas, encouraging all
participants to be active in the process.
Record solutions.  Typically, two facilitators will
capture ideas from the group on a whiteboard or
flipchart.
Participants are encouraged to provide
unusual/creative answers.  Criticism is reserved.
Ideas can be combined and improved to form better
solutions.
Brainstorming
Inputs
A specific question must be asked, such as, “How
might we increase the computer literacy among
elderly people?”
Outputs
The process will yield a large quantity of answers.
Brainstorming
Next Steps after Exercise
Once creative/good ideas are formed and listed, it is
necessary to prioritize them to reach the best solution. In
order to prioritize them, select the five best ideas through
team consensus.
Choose five criteria for judging ideas that best solve the
problem.
Give each idea a score.
The idea with highest score will be a strong solution.
Example
The design firm IDEO used the brainstorming technique
to develop the first Apple mouse.
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What are Research Ethics?

Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that

guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others

The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed or

suffers adverse consequences from research
activities
Ethical Treatment of Respondents
and Subjects
Begin data collection by explaining to the respondent
the benefits expected from the research

Explain to the respondents that their rights and well-

being will be adequately protected, and say how this
will be done

Be certain that interviewers obtain the informed

consent of the respondent
Ethical Issues related to Researchers
and Team Members
Safety

Ethical behavior of assistants

Protection of anonymity