Addis Ababa

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What is Research?
The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out
something, the following is the process:

Observes Collection of data

Person Phenomena Conclusions
Again and again Analysis of data

The research is a process of which a person observes the

phenomena again and again from different dimensions
and collects the data, and on the basis of collected data
he/she draws some conclusions.

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Definitions of Research:
1. Robert Ross defined research as an investigation, a
recording and analysis of evidences for the purpose of
gaining knowledge.

2. Fred kerlinger – research is an organized enquiry

designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem.

3. Francis Rummel – research is a careful inquiry or

examination to discover new information or
relationship and to expand and to verify the existing
knowledge.
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4. According to Clifford Woody, “Research
comprises of defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggest solutions;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis”.

In short,
Research is the search for knowledge through
scientific and systematic method of finding solution
to a problem.

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On evaluating these definitions, we can conclude
that-Research refers to the systematic method
consisting of
Formulating the problem,
Formulating a hypothesis,
Collecting the fact or data,
Analyzing the facts and
Reaching to certain conclusions either in the form
of solutions towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.

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 Research Methods versus Methodology

Research methods may be understood as all those

methods/techniques that are used for conduction
of research.
Research methods, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research
operations.
In other words, all those methods which are
used by the researcher during the course of
studying his research problem are termed as
research methods.
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• Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the
research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying
how research is done scientifically.

• In it, we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a

researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic
behind them.
• It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research
methods/techniques but also the methodology.

• Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain

indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median
or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know which of these
methods or techniques are relevant and which are not, and what
would they mean and indicate and why. 8
 From what has been stated above, we can
say that
 Research methodology has many dimensions
and research methods do constitute a part of
the research methodology.
 The scope of research methodology is wider
than that of research methods.

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Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to

questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose,
we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights

into it (studies with this object in view are termed as formulative or
exploratory research studies);

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2. To accurately portray the characteristics
of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are
known as descriptive research studies);

3. To test a hypothesis of a causal

relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).

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 1.3 Classifications & Types of Research:

Classifications of Research:
There are two broad classifications of research:
I. Research in physical or natural sciences,
II. Research in social or human sciences.

Physical sciences deal with things, which can be

put into laboratory tests under guided conditions.
These researches deal with physical phenomena
upon which man has complete control.
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Researches in social sciences are based on
human behavior, which is influenced by so
many factors such as physical, social,
temperamental, psychological and economic.

We can never hope to put such human beings

to laboratory tests. Even if it is done, their
responses would not be natural but subject to
the awareness of the artificial conditions.

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 Types of Research
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i)Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.

• The main characteristic of this method is that the

researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is happening.
For example, frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data.
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Descriptive research, also known as statistical
research and answers the W-H questions such as
who, what, where, when and how.

Descriptive research cannot be used to investigate

a causal-relationship, where one variable affects
another.

The description is used for frequencies, averages

and other statistical calculations

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In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these facts to make a critical
evaluation of the material.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be

applied (or action) research or fundamental (basic or
pure) research.

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an

immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization, whereas fundamental
research is mainly concerned with generalizations and
with the formulation of a theory.
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(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned

with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we
are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research.
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 (iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research
is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It
is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on
experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory.
It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by
observation or experiment. We can also call it as
experimental type of research.
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(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of
research are variations of one or more of the above
stated approaches, based on either the purpose of
research, or the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor.

Form the point of view of time, we can think of research

either as one-time research /cross-sectional/ or
longitudinal research. In the former case, the research is
confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case, the research is carried on over several time-periods.

Research can be field-setting research or laboratory

research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
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 Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic
research. Such research follow case-study methods or in-
depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such
studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events
that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices.

The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized.

The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested.

Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources

like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the
past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.
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 Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented
and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented
research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem,
redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes.

Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a

decision-maker and the researcher in this case is not free
to embark upon research according to his own inclination.
Operations research is an example of decision-oriented
research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their control.

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 Essentials of qualitative research approach
 Qualitative Research: This approach involves study of non-
quantitative data i.e. characteristics or attributes, attitude,
opinion or behavior.

 In this case, research is a function of researcher’s insight

and impressions.

 It involves use of techniques such as depth/unstructured

interview, group interview, participant observation,
projective techniques (Word associations, Sentence
completion) etc.
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 Case Study Method
 The case study method is a very popular form of
qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete
observation of a social unit, i.e., a person, a family, an
institution, a cultural group or even the entire community.
 It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.

 The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis

of a limited number of events or conditions and their
interrelations.
 Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation
of the particular unit under consideration.
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 Case Study … Cont’d
 Case studies can be used when it is not possible to
adopt a sampling approach that seeks to generalize
conclusions as if conditions were identical in other
organizations,
 i.e., not possible to generalize from a case study but possible
to generalize, or test a theory.

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 1.5 Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the
desired sequencing of these steps.

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 Stages In the Research Process
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing the hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting the data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the
results, i.e., formal write-up of conclusions
reached.
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Brief Discussion of the Stages in the Research Process :

1. Problem Discovery And Definition

•First step - Symptom Detection
•Detect Problem and opportunity
•Problem means management problem
“The formulation of the problem is often more essential
than its solution” - Albert Einstein.
2. Review of Literature:
Review of concepts and theories regarding the problem
of your study.
Review of previous research findings in the area of your
study.

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3.Formulation of Research Objectives,
Questions and Hypothesis:
Discuss the problem with the colleagues
Examine the data and reports
Develop tentative assumptions.
4. Operationalization of Concept:
Define the concepts to be used in the study
Construct index/ guide/
Construct scale for measuring variables

5. Preparation of the research plan or design:

Prepare master plan for your study
Framework for action
Specifies methods and procedures
Organize the means for obtaining information.
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6. Determine the sample design: (Subset of Larger Population)
Define study population clearly even in terms of number.
Determine sample design to select the appropriate sampling
techniques (probability and /or non-probability sampling)
 Determine the sample size

7. Construct tools for data collection:

Observation Questionnaire
Personal interview Schedule.
Telephone interview

8. Collection of data:
Primary data from primary sources
Secondary data from secondary sources.

9. Processing of data:
Editing Coding
Classification Transcription or decoding and Tabulation.
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10. Analysis of data: Descriptive analysis
Percentage
Average
Time series analysis
Index number analysis
Use of other statistical tools if necessary.
11. Hypothesis testing: inferential analysis
Chi-Square test
F-test
Z-test
T-test.
Regression and correlation analysis.
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N.B. If entire population is taken for
the study, it can be analyzed simply
using descriptive statistics only. It is
not possible to use inferential statistics
here because there is nothing to infer.
 However, if sample is taken from
population, inferential statistics may be
used to infer the characteristics of
sample on population from which
sample has been drawn.
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12. Interpretation and Generalization:
Draw meaning from the analysis
Reach to the conclusion and compare your conclusion
against your set hypothesis.
See whether conclusions are applicable universally
Make generalization.
13. Report Writing:
The preliminary pages with Roman Numbers.
Main text:
Introduction (use Arabic Numbers for pagination).
Main reports
Summary and findings
Conclusion and recommendation
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Report Writing
Report writing is an effective communication of the
research findings to the:
Society
Clients
Government
Industries
Other Researchers
Scholars
Libraries etc.,

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 1.6. Motivation in research
The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability. 34
 1.7. Characteristics of Good Research
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is
structured with specified steps to be taken in a
specified sequence in accordance with the well
defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does reject the use of guessing and intuition in
arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is
guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out research. Induction is the process of
reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is

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 the process of reasoning from some premise to a
conclusion which follows from that very premise. In
fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful
in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is
related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows
research results to be verified by replicating the study
and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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 Criteria of Good Research
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.
2. The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the
research for further advancement, keeping the continuity
of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as
possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon
the findings.
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5. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
6. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research and is a person of integrity.

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Chapter End

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