0-Experimental Basics of Q Theory

Introduction to Atomic & Molecular Physics
The structure of atoms and molecules is important in every type of

process in macroscopic world
,Life, electronics, color, tastes, sounds
Also in sciences: Chemistry, material sciences, bio-sciences, astrophysics
Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022
Experimental Basics of Quantum Theory
Learning Objectives
Student is expected to be able to:
• state a brief history of the Cathode ray.
• differentiate between cathode ray and X-ray.
• describe the experimental work done to prove that electrons are cathode rays
• describe a method used to observe line spectra.
• define absorption and emission spectrum.
• use Rydberg equation to derive Balmer, Lyman, and Pashen series
Figures and details in this presentation are taken from: Essentials of Modern Physics by Virgilio Acosta and others,
Professor Rick Trebino (www.physics.gatech.edu/frog), Physics for Scientists and Engineers by Serway, 5 th Ed & 6th
Ed, The text book by thornton and Rex, and many websites like physicsclassroom.com and HyperPhysics.com

A Brief History of the Cathode Rays
(and vacuum)

A Brief History of the Cathode Rays
(and vacuum)

A Brief History of the Cathode
Rays (and vacuum)

Cathode Rays: What are they?
In the 1890s scientists and engineers were familiar with

“cathode rays”. These rays were generated from one of the
metal plates in an evacuated tube with a large electric
.potential across it
…Approaching the 20th Century

Cathode Rays Have Charge
J. J. Thomson
(1856-1940)
It was surmised that cathode rays had something to do

with atoms.
It was known that cathode rays could penetrate matter
and were deflected by magnetic and electric fields.
Cathode Rays Produce Sharp Shadow

J.J. Thomson’s Cathode-Ray Experiment
Thomson used an evacuated cathode-ray
tube to show that the cathode rays were
negatively charged particles (electrons) by
deflecting them in electric and magnetic
fields.
J. J. Thomson

J.J. Thomson’s Experiment: e/m Ratio
Thomson’s method of measuring the ratio of the electron’s

charge to mass was to send electrons through a region
containing a magnetic field perpendicular to an electric field.

Measurement of the e/m Ratio

Nature of the Cathode Rays:
the Discovery of the Electron
J.J. Thomson 1856-1940 Nobel Prize 1906
– Manages to show conclusively that cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic
fields; do not depend on the material the cathode or the anode is made of
– Have a negative charge, cathode rays are particles
– Measures e/m ratio, close (about 35% off) to the present value of 1.76x1011C/kg
Better vacuum available after progress by Crookes

Determination of
Electron Charge
The oil drop experiment
(1907-1911)
Robert Andrews Millikan
(1868 – 1953)
Millikan used an
electric field to
balance gravity and
suspend a charged
oil drop

Calculation of the Oil Drop Charge
Millikan used an electric field to balance gravity and
suspend a charged oil drop:
Turning off the electric field, Millikan noted that the drop mass (mdrop)
could be determined from Stokes’ relationship of the terminal
velocity (vt) to the drop density (r) and the air viscosity () :

Determination of the electron charge
Millikan was able to show that electrons had a

particular charge.
e = 1.602x10-19 C
The e
-
Conclusions: Both the mass and the charge of

the electron are quantified
The Discovery of X-rays
Wilhelm Röntgen
(1845-1923)

The Discovery of X-rays
Properties of the X-rays:

– More penetrating than cathode rays
– Not deviated by electric/magnetic fields
– Immediate medical applications !
?Why Called X-Rays
He called them X-rays and deduced
that they were produced by the
cathode rays bombarding the glass
.walls of his vacuum tube
Röntgen does not say anything to
anybody. Astonished by his discovery,
needs to check, double-check, triple
check… or about 7 weeks !
• Finally, on Dec 28, 1895, he submits a preliminary paper: “On a

new kind of rays” which is distributed in January 1896
• By the end of 1896, more than a thousand papers were written

on the subject of X-rays.
• 1902: Röntgen receives the first Nobel Prize in Physics

X-ray Spectrum
An energetic electron
passing through matter will
radiate photons and lose
kinetic energy which is
called: bremsstrahlung,
from the German word for
“braking radiation”

X-ray Spectrum

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff Robert Wilhelm von Bunsen (1811–1899).
(1824–1887). Yes, this is the Bunsen is pictured with his most famous
same fellow who brought us invention, the gas laboratory burner named
the circuit loop theorem and for him. The greatest achievement of this fine
established the connection chemist, however, was the development, with
between the absorption and Kirchhoff, of the powerful analytical method
.of spectral analysis
.emission of an object
What do you learn from the following figure?

Line Spectra

Observations of Colored
Emissions from Elements

?What is a Spectrum

Emission Line Spectrum
It is observed that chemical elements produce unique colors when burned •

(with a flame) or excited (with an electrical discharge)
Diffraction creates a line spectrum pattern of light bands and dark areas on •
.the screen
The line spectrum serves as a fingerprint of the gas that allows for unique •
.identification of chemical elements and material composition

Characteristic Line Spectra
of Elements
Each element has its own line spectra

 Finger Print
Balmer Series
In 1885, Johann Balmer (a Swiss schoolteacher) finds an
empirical formula for wavelength of the visible hydrogen
:line spectra in nm
..…,Where k 3,4,5
Underlying
order/quantification not
understood

Rydberg Equation
As more spectral lines are discovered, a more general
empirical equation appears: the Rydberg equation

.Conclusions… so far
Early experiments point to the quantization of •

certain quantities
Quantization appears in empirical formula as a way •

to describe Nature
Still no theory can explain the observed behaviors •
Does an accurate description of Nature indeed •

?require quantization

Exercise
• Derive the Balmer formula from the Rydberg equation.
• Derive formula for both the Lyman and the Pashen series.

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Introduction to Atomic & Molecular Physics

The structure of atoms and molecules is important in every type of

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

In the 1890s scientists and engineers were familiar with

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

It was surmised that cathode rays had something to do

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Thomson’s method of measuring the ratio of the electron’s

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

J.J. Thomson 1856-1940 Nobel Prize 1906

– Have a negative charge, cathode rays are particles

Better vacuum available after progress by Crookes

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Millikan was able to show that electrons had a

Conclusions: Both the mass and the charge of

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Properties of the X-rays:

• Finally, on Dec 28, 1895, he submits a preliminary paper: “On a

• By the end of 1896, more than a thousand papers were written

• 1902: Röntgen receives the first Nobel Prize in Physics

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

It is observed that chemical elements produce unique colors when burned •

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Each element has its own line spectra

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Early experiments point to the quantization of •

Quantization appears in empirical formula as a way •

Still no theory can explain the observed behaviors •

Does an accurate description of Nature indeed •

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021 -2022

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