Module - 1 Introduction To Sensor Systems: Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

SENSOR SYSTEMS
(Course Code: ECE1007)
Module – 1
Introduction to Sensor Systems
Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Sr. Assistant Professor
School of Electronics Engineering (SENSE)
VIT-AP University
E-Mail: subhasish.m@vitap.ac.in
CONTENTS
Module – 1 (Introduction) - 4 Hrs

 General concepts and terminology of measurement systems
 Sensors and transducers
 Classification of sensors
 Static and dynamic characteristics
 Mathematical model of sensor - Zero, I and II order systems
 Introduction to open and closed loop systems, Feedback mechanism in a process

Sr. Assistant Professor, SENSE
Introduction to Sensor Systems 2
REFREENCE BOOKS
Text Books:
1. Doebelin E.O., “Measurement System Application and Design”, McGraw Hill, 5th Edition 2004.
2. Patranabis, “Sensors and Transducers”, Prentice Hall of India, NewDelhi, 2nd Edition, 2009.
Reference Books:
3. Ramon Pallas-Areny, John G. Webster, “Sensors and Signal Conditioning”, John Wiley and Sons Inc,
2nd Edition, 2012.
4. Jacob Fraden, “Handbook of Modern Sensors: Physics, Designs, and Applications”, Springer, 5th
Edition,2015

General Concepts and
Terminology of
Measurement Systems

PURPOSE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 A process as a system which generates

information. Examples are a jet fighter, a
Observer
submarine, a car, a human heart, and a
weather system, etc.
 The observer as a person who needs this
information from the process. This could be
the car driver, the plant operator or the
nurse. Process
 The purpose of the measurement system is
to link the observer to the process.

PURPOSE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 An ideal measurement system can be designed by considering the information variable as a

measured variable, the input to the measurement system as the true value of the variable and
the system output as the measured value of the variable. This is also termed as manual
measurement system.

STRUCTURE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 The measurement system consists of several elements or blocks. It is possible to identify four
types of element, although in a given system one type of element may be missing or may occur
more than once.

STRUCTURE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
 In contact with the  Takes the output of  Takes the output of  This presents the
process and gives an the sensing element the conditioning measured value in a form
output which depends and converts it into a element and converts which can be easily
in some way on the form more suitable for it into a form more recognized by the
variable to be further processing, suitable for observer.
measured. usually a DC signal or presentation.  Examples: Visual display
 Examples: frequency signal.  Examples: ADC, unit (VDU), Monitor,
Thermocouple  Examples: Bridges, Computer System Chart recorder,
Strain gauge Amplifier Alphanumeric display

EXAMPLES

INTRODUCTION- WHY SENSORS?
 Measurements are required everywhere and Sensors allow measurements by yielding electric
signals with embedded information
 Function of measurement systems:
 Independent of observer (objective)
 Experimentally based (empirical)
 Possible objectives of measurement:
 Process Monitoring & Control
- e.g. Ambient temperature measurement, Gas & water volume measurement and Temperature and
flow control
 Assist Experimental engineering
- Study of temp distribns or force distribns

ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SENSORS
ABSOLUTE SENSORS
Detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute physical scale
that is independent of the measurement conditions
SENSORS can be CLASSIFIED
(based on selection of Reference)
RELATIVE SENSORS
Produces a signal that relates to some special case
Examples:
TEMPERATURE SENSOR PRESSURE SENSOR

Absolute sensor: THERMISTOR- ‘R’ directly relates Absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference
to the absolute temperature scale of Kelvin to vacuum – (an absolute zero on a pressure scale.)
Relative sensor: THERMOCOUPLE- Produces a ‘V’, Relative pressure sensor produces signal with respect
which is a function of a temperature gradient to a selected baseline that is not zero pressure, for
across the thermocouple wires example, to the atmospheric pressure.

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SENSORS
 Governing Physical principle of Sensors

 Design of Sensors
 Application
Sensor technologies are undergoing major change on account of micro- and nanotechnologies
supporting its growth and development.
Modern Sensors (features)
 Higher sensitivity
 Smaller dimensions
 Better selectivity
 Lower prices

MAJOR APPLICATIONS OF SENSORS
 Domestic appliances,
 Industries,
 Transport,
 Health services,
 Defence equipment
Sensors used to measure:
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Flow
 Gases and Chemicals
 Motion
 Light
 Image

SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS
SENSOR TRANSDUCER
 A device that produces a usable output  A transducer is a device that converts a
in response to a specified signal or signal from one physical form to a
stimulus also called ‘measurand’ corresponding signal having a different
physical form. Therefore, it is an energy
OUTPUT : Electrical quantity or mechanical
converter.
or optical quantity
MEASURAND: Physical Quantity, Property
or Condition
Measured system not to be perturbed A sensor may not

by measuring action! be a transducer!

SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS
 A sensor may incorporate several transducers.
 Other differences between Sensor & Transducer:
 Efficiency of energy measurement (Imp. for Transducer ; not critical for Sensor)
 Linearity of response ( Imp. For Sensor; not significant for Transducer)
Most Sensors give electrical signal as OUTPUT

WHERE ARE SENSORS USED?
 The controller controls

(generates an appropriate
actuation signal) a physical
variable which is
measured by the sensor
from the process.
 Actuator is a device that converts an converts mechanical, fluid, thermal, or electrical energy into
mechanical motion. It is also called as “Output transducers “and are designed mainly for power
conversion. It converts electrical signal into generally nonelectrical energy.
 In contrast, Sensors are intended to acquire information.

FUNCTIONS AND DATA FLOW IN A MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEM
ADC
 Sensors and actuators are

transducers at the physical
interface between electronic
systems and processes or
experiments.
 Signal conditioners are
electronic circuits performing
any of following functions:
amplification, level shifting,
filtering, impedance matching,
modulation, and demodulation.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
 Various criteria can be consider to classify the sensors

 Transduction principles using physical or chemical effects
 Primary Input Quantity (Measurand)
 Material and technology
 Application
Classification based on Applications
 Property

APPLICATIONS OF SENSOR SYSTEMS





 Sub-classification based on energy or power requirement:

 Active (Self-generating)
 Passive (Modulating)
SENSORS
Active Passive
(Self-Generating) (Modifiers/ Modulating)
Generates signal without need for any external Passive sensors require external power for their operation, which is
power supply called an excitation signal.
E.g. Photovoltaic Cells E.g.
Thermocouples * Modulating ‘Voltage’ or ‘Current’ of power supply-like Thermistor
Piezoelectric devices * Diaphragm – Convert pressure / velocity of sound waves into
movements of solid sheet.

POSITIONS OF SENSORS IN A DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
Data recorder, Display, Alarm
Controls a multiplexer & ADC

for appropriate timing and
send control signals to the
actuator
Electric motor, Solenoid, Relay,

Pneumatic valve Sensor 1 Noncontact
Sensors 2 and 3 Passive
Sensor 4 Active
Sensor 5 Internal to a data acquisition system

ADVANCED SAFETY CARS
Multiple sensors, actuators,
and warning signals are parts of
the advanced safety vehicle
Courtesy: http://groupementadas.canalblog.com/archives/2016/08/19/34189096.html

AUTOMATIC WASHING MACHINE
Two Important Sensors:
 Temperature Sensors-
 THERMISTOR- Made of solid Semiconducting
material showing
 Shows positive temperature coefficient &
negative temperature coefficient
 High Sensitivity (~ 44,000 ppm/ C @ 25 C
 Small response time
 Water level Sensor-
 Based on switch to control how high tub fills…

GEYSERS
 Thermostat is used as a control switch to

regulate the temperature of the water by
adjusting the heating duration of the element.
 Principle: When the temperature is close to the
set-point on the thermostat, the element is
switched off.
 When the temperature of the geyser drops
below the set point, the element is switched on
and the water heated to the set point .

Static & Dynamic
Characteristics

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Range:
 The input range of an element is specified by the minimum and maximum values of I, i.e. IMIN to
IMAX. The output range is specified by the minimum and maximum values of O, i.e. OMIN to OMAX.
 For example, pressure transducer may have an input range of 0 to 104 Pa and an output range of
4 to 20 mA.
Span:
 Span is the maximum variation in input or output, i.e. input span is IMAX – IMIN, and output span
is OMAX – OMIN.
 In the above example: input span = 104 Pa and output span = 16 mV.

Linearity:
 An element is said to be linear if corresponding values of I and O lie on a straight line. The ideal
straight line connects the minimum point A(IMIN, OMIN ) to maximum point B(IMAX, OMAX).
 In the previous example,

the ideal straight line is

Non-Linearity:
 Non-linearity can be defined in terms of a function N(I)
which is the difference between actual and ideal straight-
line behavior, i.e.
 Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the

maximum non-linearity ; expressed as a percentage of
full-scale deflection (f.s.d.), i.e. as a percentage of span.

Sensitivity:
 This is the change ∆O in output O for unit change ∆I in input I, i.e. it is the ratio ∆O/∆I. In the
limit that ∆I tends to zero, the ratio ∆O/∆I tends to the derivative dO/dI, which is the rate of
change of O with respect to I.
 For a linear element dO/dI is equal to the slope or gradient K of the straight line; for the above
pressure transducer the sensitivity is 1.6 × 10-3 mA/Pa. For a non-linear element dO/dI = K +
dN/dI, i.e. sensitivity is the slope or gradient of the output versus input characteristics O(I).
Threshold:
 At zero value condition of measurand, the smallest input change that produces a detectable
output is called as Threshold.

Repeatability:
 Repeatability error of a sensor is its inability to represent the same value under identical
conditions. It is expressed as the maximum difference between output readings as determined
by two measurement cycles.
δr = [Δ/FS *100%],
where,
FS=Full scale of sensor

Accuracy:
Measured
 It the degree of closeness to the true value. values
 From Figure, Instrument 2 is a accurate instrument.
Precision:
 This describes how far measured quantity
True
reproducible as also how close it is to the true value. Value
 From Figure, both Instruments 1 and 2 are Precise
instruments.
Note: All accurate instruments are precise, however all precise instruments
are not accurate. Hence, Instrument 1 is not accurate but precise.
But Instrument 2 is both accurate and precise.
Accuracy vs Precision:
Example :
X : result and Centre circle : true value
XXX
XXX X X
XXX
XXXX X
XXX
x
x
High accuracy, high precision Low accuracy, high precision Low accuracy, low precision

Hysteresis:
 For a given value of I, the output O may be different depending on whether I is increasing or
decreasing. Hysteresis is the difference between these two values of O, i.e.
Example:
Backlash in gears

Example: Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a full scale accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor
A has a range of 0-1 bar and Sensor B 0-10 bar. Which gauge is more suitable to be used if the
reading is 0.9 bar?
Answer:
Sensor A :
5
Equipment max error =   1 bar =  0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = 
0.05
100  5.55%
0.9

Sensor B :
5
Equipment max error =   10 bar =  0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
0.5
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) =  100  55%
0.9
Conclusion : Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar because the error percentage
(± 5.55%) is smaller compared to the percentage error of Sensor B (± 55%).

DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
 Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input variable is
changing rapidly with time.
 The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally expressed by a differential equation
relating the input and output quantities.
 It is always convenient to express the input-output dynamic characteristics in form of a linear
differential equation.
 So, often a nonlinear mathematical model is linearized and expressed in the form as below:
Where, xo and xi are output and input variables respectively.

 The previous expression can also be expressed in terms of a transfer function, as:
 Normally m<n and is called the order of the system. Commonly available sensor characteristics
can usually be approximated as either zero-th order, first order or second order dynamics.

 The order of the system is defined by the total number of energy storage components in the
system.
 It also has an influence on the speed of the response, which is defined as a delay between the
applied input and the corresponding output is irrelevant from the measurement point of view.
 The dynamic error is the difference between the indicated value and the true value for the
measured quantity, when the static error is zero. It describes the difference between a sensor's
response to the same input magnitude, depending on whether the input is constant or variable
with time.
 The dynamic characteristics are the dynamic error and speed of response (time constant,
delay).

Modeling of Sensors

MODELING OF SENSORS
 To determine the dynamic characteristics of a sensor, we must apply a variable quantity to its
input. This input can take many different forms, but it is usual to study the response to transient
inputs (impulse, step, ramp).
 To mathematically describe the behavior of a sensor, we assume that its input and output are
related through a constant-coefficient linear differential equation.
 Then the relation between sensor output and input can be expressed in a simple form, as a
quotient, by taking the Laplace transform of each signal and the transfer function of the sensor .

MODELING : ZERO ORDER SYSTEMS
 The output of a zero-order sensor is related to its input through an equation of the type
 Its behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity k and remains constant regardless of input
frequency. Hence, its dynamic error and its delay are both zero.
 An input-output relationship such as that in above equation requires that the sensor does not
include any energy-storing element.

MODELING : FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS
 In a first-order sensor there is an element that stores energy and another one that dissipates
it. The relationship between the input x(t) and the output y(t) is described by a differential
equation with the form
 After applying a Laplace transformation to the above equation, we can transform it as:

MODELING : FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS
 The dynamic error for this kind of systems is

defined as:
 The speed of response or transient

characteristics of the system are as below:
Note: These characteristics are derived, when a step function is given as an input to the system.

MODELING : SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
 A second-order sensor contains two energy-storing elements and one energy-dissipating element. Its
input x(t) and output y(t) are related by a second-order linear differential equation of the form
 The above equation can be converted in a transfer function after application of a Laplace transform as
below

MODELING : SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
 The values of the parameters are purely

determined by the constants a0, a1 and a2.
 It can be noticed that all the parameters are related

and if one is changed others are also varied.
 The time transient response of the second order
system, with a step input, is greatly influenced by
the value of damping coefficient.
 It introduces HARMONICS in the system which are
undesirable. So choosing proper a0, a1 and a2 values
for a system can reduce harmonics.

Open Loop and Close
Loop Systems

IMPORTANT TERMS
 Control system: A control system is an arrangement or a combination of various physical

components, also called sub-systems, connected in such a manner so as to attain a certain
objective.
 Input: The excitation applied to the system from an external source to attain a output is called
input signal
 Output: The actual signal attain from system is called output signal.
 Control action: is a quantity responsible for activating the system.

SYSTEMS
 There are two types of systems depending on the configuration of components:
1. Open loop system

2. Close loop system

OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS
 Those systems in which the output has no effect on the control action are called open-loop
control systems. i.e. It doesn’t automatically correct the changes in the output.
 A system in which control action is independent of the output of the system is called as open
loop system.
 In open loop system, the output remains constant for a given input provided the external
conditions are the same.
 There is no connecting action taking place in an open loop system i.e. No Feedback

OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS
In Flow V2
(qi)
V1 Out Flow
h (qo)
(water level expected) (water level)

water tank
Control valve (V2)
Outlet valve (V1)

OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS
 Examples of Open loop system  Disadvantages

 Electric Hand Drier  Incorrect and unreliable
 Automatic Washing Machine  Internal Disturbance
 Bread Toaster  Recalibration is required time to time
 Advantages
 Simple Construction & Design
 Economic
 Easy maintenance
 Stability

CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS
 A system in which the control action is dependent on the output is called close loop system. In
close loop system the output is constantly monitored and adjusted to the required value by the
system.
 The output signal is fed back and compared to the reference input. Depending upon the
difference between the output signal and reference input, corrective actions can be taken by
the controller to adjust the output, i.e. Air-conditioning unit

CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS
(Controller)
(Pneumatic
valve)
In Flow Level Sensor

(qi)
V1 Out Flow
h (qo)
Pneumatic (water level)

(Controller) (Tank)
(water level expected) valve
(Float system)

CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS
 Examples of Close loop system

 Automatic Electric Irons
 Voltage Stabilizer
 DC motor speed control by Tachometer
 Missile Launcher
 Advantages  Disadvantages
 Accuracy is high  Complicated in design
 Reduced effect of non-linearities  Maintenance costlier
 High Bandwidth  Problem of Stability
 Facilitates Automation

COMPARISON OF OPEN & CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS
Open loop System Close loop System

No feedback. Feedback exists.
No error detector. Error detector is present.
It is inaccurate. It is accurate.
Highly sensitive to parameter changes. Less sensitive to parameter changes.
Small bandwidth. Large bandwidth.
Stable. May become unstable.

Economical. Costly.

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SENSOR SYSTEMS

(Course Code: ECE1007)

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Module – 1 (Introduction) - 4 Hrs

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 A process as a system which generates

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 An ideal measurement system can be designed by considering the information variable as a

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

TEMPERATURE SENSOR PRESSURE SENSOR

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 Governing Physical principle of Sensors

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Measured system not to be perturbed A sensor may not

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 A sensor may incorporate several transducers.

 Other differences between Sensor & Transducer:

Most Sensors give electrical signal as OUTPUT

 The controller controls

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 Sensors and actuators are

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 Various criteria can be consider to classify the sensors

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 Sub-classification based on energy or power requirement:

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Data recorder, Display, Alarm

Controls a multiplexer & ADC

Electric motor, Solenoid, Relay,

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Two Important Sensors:

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 Thermostat is used as a control switch to

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 In the previous example,

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 Non-linearity is often quantified in terms of the

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

 From Figure, Instrument 2 is a accurate instrument.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Where, xo and xi are output and input variables respectively.

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra

Dr. Subhasish Mahapatra