ULTRASONIC TESTING

LEVEL II

ACTS
 ESSENTIALS
• UT Level II course (SNT-TC-1A)
• Instructor
• Format
• Class Hours: 8:00am to 4:30pm.
• Breaks: At the discretion of the instructor.
• Lunch: 1 hour 12:00 – 1:00pm
• Cell phones off
• Restroom locations
• Safety – Evacuation route
ACTS
 LET’S GET ACQUAINTED
• Name:
• Company:
• Job Title:
• Background:

ACTS
 KEY SUBJECTS
• I – Review of Ultrasonic Testing Principles
• II – UT Equipment and Calibration
• III – Evaluation of Base Material Product
Forms
• IV – Ultrasonic Testing Applications
• VI – Transducer Characteristics
• VII – Codes, Standards and Specifications
• VIII - Evaluation of UT Results
ACTS
 PURPOSE
• To review the theory and principles of Ultrasonic
Testing
• To become proficient with UT equipment,
materials, techniques and calibrations
• To perform Level II Ultrasonic Tests
• To identify, interpret and evaluate discontinuities
• To understand the applicable UT standards,
specifications and procedures
• To document test results

ACTS
 OBJECTIVES
• To understand advanced principles of UT
• To become familiar with the many applications of UT
• To relate UT responses with discontinuity types
• To understand common techniques, procedures and
requirements
• To perform various Level II UT examinations
• To be able to interpret test results to various codes
and prepare test reports
• Pass the final examination

ACTS
 PURPOSE AND
OBJECTIVES
• Purpose: To present the body of knowledge
for Level II Ultrasonic Testing.

• Objective: To provide each student with an

understanding of the principles and
applications of Ultrasonic Testing.

ACTS
I – REVIEW OF UT PRINCIPLES

• The five basic elements of UT

• Sound propagation
• Characteristics of ultrasound
• Wave modes and techniques
• Data display

ACTS
FIVE BASIC ELEMENTS OF UT

1. Qualified personnel
2. Qualified procedure
3. Calibrated equipment
4. Test performance
5. Accurate data evaluation and recording

ACTS
 SOUND PROPAGATION
• Sound
– the passage of mechanical energy through
a medium (i.e., vibrations in motion)
• Ability to propagate depends upon:
– material composition
– wavelength, which is a function of:
• velocity
• frequency

ACTS
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
• Vibrational forces in motion
• Travels at specific velocities in a given
material
• Has frequency
• And wavelength
• It attenuates
• It reflects

ACTS
 VELOCITY
• Velocity depends on:
– material properties (density and
elasticity)
– wave mode (longitudinal, shear, surface,
etc.)
– material temperature

ACTS
 VELOCITY
• Velocity is constant in a given homogeneous
(uniform) material
– which allows distance to be calculated by
measuring sound travel time
– however, distance and thickness measurements
will be inaccurate if the test material velocity
varies from the velocity of the reference
standard

ACTS
 VELOCITY
• Calculations involving velocity can be
simplified by using kilometers/second as
units
• But, for microprocessor-based instruments
to read out in inches, velocities must be
entered in inch units
– conversion: 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

ACTS
 FREQUENCY
• Frequency is defined as:
– the rate of vibration, or
– the number of complete waves that pass a
given point in one second

• A wave is generated
from one full cycle of
transducer vibration

ACTS
 WAVELENGTH
• Wavelength () is
defined as:
– the distance from
one point on a wave 
train to the next
identical point
– the distance sound
travels within the
duration of one
complete cycle

ACTS
 WAVELENGTH

V
The following equation is used for calculating wavelength:

 f V V V

 
Wavelength ( mm ) 

f

f
Where:
 = wavelength (mm)
V = velocity (Km/sec)
f = frequency (MHz)

ACTS
 WAVELENGTH
Example
Calculate wavelength where:
f = 7.5 MHz V = TitaniumL(6.1 Km/sec)

6 .1
  0.81mm
7 .5

ACTS
 WAVELENGTH CALCULATIONS
Calculate the wavelength for the following
where: v/f
1. Transducer is 0.5” diameter, 5.0 MHz,
material is steel. (straight beam)
2. Transducer is 1.0” diameter, 1.0 MHz,
material is water. (straight beam)
3. Angle beam transducer is .75 “diameter,
2.25 MHz, material is aluminum (shear
wave)
ACTS
 ATTENUATION
• Material Loss Attenuation
– amplitude losses caused by the structure of the
test material
• scattering: reflection of sound by coarse
grain structure, impurities, or fine porosity
• absorption: conversion of sound into heat by
friction among vibrating particles
– occurs at a linear rate (e.g., 1 decibel per inch)

ACTS
 ATTENUATION
• Small reflectors
• Intercepts only a portion of the sound beam
• Echo amplitude is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance
• As distance is doubled, echo amplitude
decreases by 12 dB

ACTS
 ATTENUATION - TOTAL
• Total attenuation results from a
combination of both beam spread and
material losses

• In order to evaluate reflector amplitude,

correction must be made for attenuation

ACTS
 REFLECTION PRINCIPLES
• Sound reflects when it strikes an acoustic
interface

ACTS
 REFLECTION PRINCIPLES
• Acoustic impedance is the opposition that
individual material particles offer to being
dislodged by sound
• Acoustic impedance = Velocity x Density
(Z =V x ρ)
• The greater the acoustic impedance
difference, the greater the percentage of
reflection
ACTS
 REFLECTION
Formula for calculating reflected energy
(RE):
2

Z Z 
% RE     100
2 1

Z Z  2 1

where:
Z1 = impedance of material through which sound is
traveling
Z2 = impedance of material sound strikes at the interface

Note: Due to the Law of Conservation of Energy,

Transmitted Energy = 100% - Reflected Energy
ACTS
 REFLECTION
Example
Calculate the Reflected Energy where:

Z1 = Steel (4560) Z2 = Water (149)

2

Z Z 
% RE   2
  100
1

Z Z 
2 1

2
 149  4560 
%RE     100  87.74%
 149  4560 
ACTS
 REFLECTION

Formula for calculating reflected energy (RE):

2

Z Z 
% RE   2
  100
1

Z Z 
2 1

where:
Z1 = impedance of material through which sound is traveling
Z2 = impedance of material sound strikes at the interface

Note: Due to the Law of Conservation of Energy,

Transmitted Energy = 100% - Reflected Energy
ACTS
 REFLECTION
Example
Calculate the Reflected Energy where:

Z1 = Steel (4560) Z2 = Air (0.33)

2

Z Z 
% RE   2
  100
1

Z Z 
2 1

 0.33  4560 
% RE     99.97%
 0.33  4560 
ACTS
 REFLECTION
• Echo performance is also affected by the
size, shape, orientation, texture, and
thickness of reflector
• Sound can be scattered by small interfaces
as it travels through a given material
– because the material's structure may
include grain boundaries, porosity, or
impurities
ACTS
THE SOUND BEAM

ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
• The sound beam consists of a near field
(Fresnel zone) and a far field (Fraunhofer
zone)
– The end of the near field (and the beginning of
the far field) is called the Y0 Point.

ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
• The varying phase relationships in the near
field cause varying wave amplitudes
– therefore, it is difficult to estimate reflector size
in the near field

ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
• The far field provides a predictable and
correctable decrease in sound pressure as
distance from the transducer increases
– therefore, reflector size can be estimated in the
far field

ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
• The length of the near field can be
calculated from the following formula:

D2  f 2

N D  f
N  4 V
Where: 4 V
N = Near Field Length (mm) f = Frequency (MHz)
D = Crystal Diameter (mm) V = Velocity (Km/sec)

ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
Example
Calculate the Near Field where:
D = ¾ inches f = 7.5 MHz V = TitaniumL

D f 2

N
4 V
19.05  7.5
N  111 .55mm  4.39"
4  6 .1
ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
• Beam Divergence can be calculated from
the following formula:

 1.22  V 
  arcsin  
Where:  D f 
 = Beam Divergence Angle f = Frequency (MHz)
D = Crystal Diameter (mm) V = Velocity (Km/sec)

ACTS
 THE SOUND BEAM
Example
Calculate the Beam Divergence where:
D = ¾ inches f = 7.5 MHz V = TitaniumL

 1.22  V 
  arcsin  
 D f 

 1.22  6.1 
  arcsin    2.99
0

 19.05  7.5 
ACTS
 WAVE MODES
Compressional Waves
• Also called Longitudinal Waves
• Travels in solids, liquids, and gases
• This is the highest velocity wave mode
– consists of alternating zones of compression
and rarefaction


ACTS
 WAVE MODES
Transverse Waves
• Also called Shear Waves
• Particle motion is perpendicular to wave travel
and
• Travel in solids only at approximately half the
velocity of Compressional Waves
• Consists of alternating zones of peaks and troughs


ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Sound beam
approaching interface
(Compressional Wave)
is called incident beam
• Angle of Incidence:
angle formed by the
incident beam and a
line perpendicular to
the interface

ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Sound beam is
reflected at the
interface
– Angle of Reflection:
angle formed by the
reflected beam and a
line perpendicular to
the interface
– Angle of reflection
equals the angle of
incidence
ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Refraction
– When a sound beam
passes at an angle other
than perpendicular to
the interface, between
two materials of
different acoustic
velocity, a change in
beam direction called Refracted Beam

refraction occurs

ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Mode Conversion
– occurs when a sound beam

is
incident to an interface
at an
angle other than 90
degrees. A portion of the
incident beam's energy
converts to a shear wave at
the interface an angle other
than the angle of incidence
ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Snell's Law defines the relationships between
incident and other sound beams:

sin Velocity
sin
incident

Velocity
incident

sin 
Velocity Velocity
incident incident

sinrefracted refracted

refracted refracted

ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
Example
Calculate the Incident Angle where:
V1 = Acrylic Plastic (2.67 Km/sec)
V2 =Steel T (3.23 Km/sec) Refracted Angle = 700
sin Velocity
incident
 incident

sinrefracted
Velocity refracted

sin 2.67

incident
 50.97 0

sin 70 3.23 0

ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY

• Critical Angles
– The first critical angle is
the incident angle that
causes the longitudinal
beam to be refracted 90
degrees

ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
• Critical
Angles(continued)
– The second critical angle
is the incident angle that
causes the shear beam to
be refracted 90 degrees
– surface waves start to Refracted Shear

develop at the second

critical angle

ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
Example
Calculate the First Critical Angle where:
V1 = Acrylic Plastic (2.67 Km/sec)
V2 =Steel L (5.85 Km/sec)

sin Velocity
incident
 incident

sinrefracted
Velocity refracted

sin 2.67
incident
  27.26 0

1 5.85
ACTS
 SHEAR WAVE THEORY
Example
Calculate the Second Critical Angle where:
V1 = Acrylic Plastic (2.67 Km/sec)
V2 =Steel T (3.23 Km/sec)
sin Velocity
incident
 incident

sinrefracted
Velocity refracted

sin 2.67
incident
  55.75 0

1 3.23
ACTS
 WAVE MODES
Rayleigh Waves
• Also called Surface Waves
• Travel along the material surface with elliptical
particle motion
• Velocity is approximately 90 percent of shear waves

and penetrates to approximately one wave length

ACTS
 WAVE MODES
Plate Waves
• Also called Lamb waves
• Propagation occurs only in thin sheet materials
– when material thickness is less than three wavelengths
• Two modes; symmetrical and asymmetrical

Symmetrical Plate Waves Asymmetrical Plate Wave

ACTS
 DATA DISPLAY
• Display hardware
– Electro-luminescent displays
– Liquid crystal displays
– Cathode ray tubes
– Paper chart recorders
– Digital readouts
– Audible/visual alarms

ACTS
 DATA DISPLAY
• A-scan
– horizontal scale:
displays time to
indicate distance
– vertical scale:
displays transducer
output voltage to
indicate echo
amplitude

ACTS
 DATA DISPLAY

• B-scan; side view of

test object: profile of
interfaces reflecting
sound beam

ACTS
 DATA PRESENTATION

• C-scan: plan (top)

view through test
object

ACTS
 II – UT EQUIPMENT AND
CALIBRATION
• Instrument functions
• Equipment types
• Equipment calibration
• Calibration and reference standards
• Test performance variables
• Instrument performance evaluation
ACTS
BLOCK HELLIER
DIAGRAM
ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The instrument contains six basic sections:

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Connecting a transducer and coupling it to
the test object completes the test system

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The Power Supply provides voltage from the AC
or batteries to drive the other instrument circuits

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The clock initiates the chain of events that
results in one complete cycle of an
ultrasonic test

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The clock triggers the timebase and pulser
at regular, evenly spaced intervals

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The time base initiates time/distance display
on the instrument’s horizontal scale

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The pulser sends an electrical pulse to the
transducer where it is converted to sound
– The initial pulse goes through the receiver/amplifier to
the display

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Sound travels through the test object as
time elapses along the display

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Sound reflects from material boundaries
and discontinuities

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Reflection sound “strikes” the transducer
and is converted into voltage

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
Transducer output voltage is processed by
the receiver and displayed

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• The clock emits a trigger signal, repeated at
a given frequency called pulse repetition
rate or update rate
• Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) can be
varied by the operator on some
instruments, is self-adjusting on others
• When PRF is too fast, wraparound (display
of echoes from previous test cycles) occurs
ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Pulse repetition rate can be calculated from
the following formula:

1,000,000  sec
Test Cycle Length 
prf

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Duration of transducer ringing determines
the length of the dead zone
• Dead zone is the depth range in the test
material from which no indications can be
displayed

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS

• Timebase generates a display of sound

travel time on the horizontal scale
– used for distance readout

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Zero Offset Control
• Adjusts when the horizontal display starts
relative to the activation of the initial pulse
• Visual effect: shifts indications to the left or
right without changing the space between
them

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Range Control
• Adjusts the amount of time displayed along
the horizontal scale to correspond with sound
travel time through a specific thickness of
material
• Visual effect: increases or decreases the
spacing between echoes along the horizontal
scale

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Coarse Range:
• selects from a series of standard range
settings (e.g., 0.5", 1", 2", 5", 10", 20", 50",
100", 200")
– Fine Range:
• allows selection ranges between the standard
range settings

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Timebase Controls
– Velocity Control:
• adjusts the amount of time displayed along
the horizontal scale to correspond with sound
travel time through material of a particular
velocity

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Electric Zero
– the point in time when
the initial pulse is
activated
• Acoustic Zero
– the point in time at
which the echo from
the front surface of the
test material returns to
the transducer

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Acoustic Zero is the actual start of material
thickness/distance measurement

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Pulser Controls
– Pulser Energy Control
• adjusts the amount of voltage applied to the
transducer
– Damping Control
• adjusts transducer performance for
resolution versus penetrating power
Note: Both Pulser Energy and Damping affect duration
of the dead zone

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• The receiver processes and amplifies signals
going to the Display

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Receiver processing is provided by rectifier
(detector) and filter sub-circuit

• The rectifier sub-circuit can provide a

choice of various types of signal passing
through the receiver

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• RF: signal trace
sweeps at mid-screen
height, with echo
signals causing both
upward and
downward deflections
of the trace

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Video: signal trace sweeps
along bottom of screen,
with echo signals causing
upward-only deflections of
the trace
• Full wave video: both the
upward and downward
RF deflections are
combined into upward-
only deflections of the
trace
ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Half wave positive
video: the upward RF
deflections are
displayed as upward
deflections of the
trace; the downward
RF deflections are not
displayed

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Half wave negative
video: the downward
RF deflections are
displayed as upward
deflections of the
trace; the upward RF
deflections are not
displayed

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Filtering is a cosmetic change to the signal
that removes test information
• Frequency filter selects either narrow band
or broad band display

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS

• Narrow band 100

display improves 80

test sensitivity
60
Amplitude
40

• provides an 20

improved signal 0

to noise ratio 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS

• Broad band display

100
provides high 80

resolution Amplitude
60

40
– enhances separation of
20
reflectors 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Frequency (Megahertz)

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS

Bandwidth Narrow Broad

Damping Low High

Ringing Long Short
Sensitivity High Low
Resolution Low High

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Amplifier
– A sub-circuit in the receiver circuit
– Multiplies the voltages of signals
– Controlled by a calibrated GAIN control

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Gain controls are calibrated in decibel (dB)
units
– sound amplitudes vary over enormous ranges
and decibels are used as a convenient
measurement of differences in sound amplitude
– the gain control is used to set signal amplitude
and to determine the difference in amplitude
between a discontinuity signal and a reference
signal
ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Decibel values are logarithmic
– basic dB/ratio equivalents
1 dB = 1.12 : 1
2 dB = 1.26 : 1
6 dB = 2 : 1
20 dB = 10 : 1

– to add decibels, multiply ratios

– to subtract decibels, divide ratios
ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The following formula is used for converting
decibels to ratios:

X : 1  anti logdB
dB
X : 1  anti log 20
20

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
The following formula is used for converting
ratios to decibels:

A
dB  20 log
1

10
A
2

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS

• REJECT control adjusts the amplifier's

input sensitivity
– prevents the display of undesired low amplitude
signals
• for example: grass or hash (metal noise signals such
as echoes from material grain boundaries or
inherent fine porosity)

ACTS
 ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT
FUNCTIONS
• Additional instrument functions:
– Time Varied Gain (TVG), to correct for
distance/amplitude losses
– gates with audible and visual alarms
– digital distance/thickness readouts
– mathematical calculation circuitry for angle
beam testing

ACTS
 EQUIPMENT TYPES

• Pulse Echo flaw detectors

• Digital Thickness Gages
• Immersion Systems
• Other systems

ACTS
PULSE ECHO

ACTS
AN ULTRASONIC INSTRUMENT EVOLUTION
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
DIGITAL UT EQUIPMENT

ACTS
PHASED ARRAY

ACTS
PHASED ARRAY (con’t)

ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
AN EVOLUTION IN THICKNESS GAGES

ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
IMMERSION SYSTEMS

ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
 OTHER SYSTEMS
Through-transmission with water columns

ACTS
SQUIRTERS

ACTS
ULTRASONIC
IMAGING
SYSTEM

ACTS
 EQUIPMENT CALIBRATION

• UT is a “comparison” NDT method

• Equipment must be calibrated to known
parameters
• Transducers must be checked for condition
• Systems must be calibrated to assure proper
functioning

ACTS
 INSTRUMENT CALIBRATION
• Calibration Blocks – used to calibrate UT
equipment for a specific examination. Can
be made with:
– Flat bottomed holes
– Notches
– Side drilled holes
– Step blocks for thickness measurement

ACTS
 CALIBRATION AND REFERENCE
STANDARDS
• Reference Standards – manufactured in
accordance with codes or specifications to
provide universal comparison of equipment
performance including:
– IIW
– ASTM
– ASME

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
Distance Amplitude Blocks
• Distance
Set (Alcoa B)
• 19 blocks, each 2" diameter
• 3/4 deep flat-bottomed hole
in each block
• Used to evaluate discontinuity
size, set sensitivity, set DAC

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
Area Amplitude Blocks
• 8 blocks, each 3-3/4" long
x 1-15/16" square (or 2"
diameter)
• 3/4 deep flat-bottomed hole
in each block
• Labeled #1 - #8 for 64ths
of an inch hole diameter
• Used to check test system
linearity

ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
Area Amplitude Hole Comparison

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Blocks
– locate beam index
– check refracted angle
– calibrate sound path
distance
– calibrate sensitivity
– check straight beam
resolution
– check penetration
ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Block: Type 1
– reflector paths: 4 & 9 inches

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Block: Type 2
– reflector paths: 2 & 4 inches

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• IIW Block: Type V-1
– reflector paths: 100 & 200 millimeters

ACTS
 BEAM INDEX POINT
• The sound exit (beam
index) point needs to
be marked on angle
beam transducers in
order to check
refracted angle and as
reference point for
distance
measurements

ACTS
 BEAM INDEX POINT

• Position the Search

Unit over the vertical
scribe mark indicated
by the “0” on the Test
Block

ACTS
 BEAM INDEX POINT

• Move the transducer

forward and
backward to obtain a
peak amplitude signal
from the radius on the
block

ACTS
 BEAM INDEX POINT

• Mark the transducer

to match the “0” index
mark on the block

ACTS
 REFRACTED ANGLE
• The transducer
refracted angle
needs to be checked
– it must be within
the tolerance
required for
detecting the
discontinuities it is
expected to find
ACTS
 REFRACTED ANGLE

• The IIW Block

provides marked
scales for checking
refracted angles in the
range of 350 - 700

ACTS
 REFRACTED ANGLE
• To check refracted angle, place the transducer
over the degree marking for the angle to be
checked (e.g., 700) and aim the sound beam at the
target hole

ACTS
 REFRACTED ANGLE
• Move the transducer forward and
backward to obtain a peak amplitude signal
from the target hole

ACTS
 REFRACTED ANGLE
• When peak amplitude is obtained, the beam
index indicates the point on the scale that
represents the transducer’s refracted angle

ACTS
CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE

Adjust the COARSE

RANGE control to the
desired Range (e.g.,
ten inches)

ACTS
CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE
Couple the
transducer to the
top of the block and
obtain echo signals
from the radii
producing 4” and
9” of sound path

ACTS
 CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE

• Move the
transducer forward
and backward to
maximize the
amplitude of echo
signals from from
the radii

ACTS
 CALIBRATE RANGE SCALE
• Using the DELAY and MTL VEL controls, align
the left edges of the echoes with the 4, and 9 scale
divisions on the display screen

ACTS
 SENSITIVITY CALIBRATION
• To calibrate sensitivity
for the 700 degree
transducer, obtain a
maximized echo from
the .060” side-drilled
hole.
• Indicated sound path
distance should be
1.75”

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• DSC Block
– locate beam index
– check refracted angle
– calibrate sound path
distance
• sound paths
– 1 & 5 inches
– 3 & 7 inches
– calibrate sensitivity

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• DC Block
– locate beam index
– calibrate sound path distance
• Sound Paths: 1 & 2 inches

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• SC Block
– check refracted angle
– calibrate sensitivity

ACTS
 REFERENCE STANDARDS
• Resolution Test Block
– Check angle beam resolution

ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Article V, Section 5

ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Article V, Section 5

ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Hole Diameters

ACTS
REFERENCE STANDARDS
ASME Basic Block: Section V, Article 4

ACTS
 EPOCH 4
CALIBRATION
(optional)
“AUTO-CAL” FEATURE!
Angle Beam Example

ACTS
 EXAMPLE:
Transducer 45o Wedge IIW Type I Test Block

A420S-SB ABWS-6-45 1018 Steel TB7541-1

(2.25 MHz, 0.625 in)

ACTS
 ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION
(USING “AUTO-CAL”)
The four steps for an angle beam calibration are:

1. Locate the Beam Index Point (B.I.P.) of the

probe

2. Verify the Refracted Angle (Beta)

3. Calibrate for Distance (Use “Auto-Cal”

Feature!)

4. Calibrate for Sensitivity

ACTS
 LOCATING THE BEAM INDEX
POINT (B.I.P.)
1. Align the wedge with the
zero mark on the
“IIW Type I Block”.

2. Move the probe forward

and backward until the echo
amplitude from the 4” arc is
peaked. (The Peak Memory feature is helpful).

IIW TYPE 1 REFERENCE BLOCK

• Once the signal is peaked, mark the side of the wedge directly over the zero mark. This is the Beam Index Point.

ACTS
VERIFY THE REFRACTED ANGLE
(BETA)
NOTE:
The refracted angle of the wedge should have already been entered into the
EPOCH 4 at the beginning of the calibration. However, this angle must be
verified due to material variations or wear on the wedge.

1. Position the probe over the appropriate angle mark on the IIW block (matched to the
angle on the wedge).

IIW TYPE 1 REFERENCE BLOCK

2. Move the probe forward and backward to “peak up” the echo from the large circular
hole in the block.
(Again, the Peak Memory feature simplifies this process.)

ACTS
3. Once the signal is peaked, hold the probe stationary. Note
the degree mark on the block that lines up with the Beam
Index Point (B.I.P. was found in the previous step). This is
the actual refracted angle (Beta) for the particular
transducer and probe.

4. If the Beta value differs from the one initially entered, enter
a new one by pressing ANGLEand then fine tuning the value
using the or keys.

ACTS
 CALIBRATE FOR DISTANCE
1. Couple the probe to the IIW Type 1 Reference block so that
the B.I.P. is directly over the “0” mark.
2. Set the initial Range to 10 inches.
3. Adjust the [ZERO OFFSET] so that both the 4” and 9”echoes
are visible on the screen. The [GAIN] may have to be
increased to view the 9” echo.

0
1”
4”
IIW TYPE 1 REFERENCE BLOCK

NOTE: An IIW Type 2 Reference Block will produce echoes at the 2”

and 4” screen divisions.

ACTS
 CALIBRATE FOR DISTANCE
• Position Gate 1 over the
4” echo.
CONTRAST

CALIBRATION

• Press ZERO
. Wait for a
OFFSET

steady reading, then press.

• Use the keypad to enter a

thickness of 4.000 inches.
ACTS
.
CALIBRATE FOR DISTANCE
• Position Gate 1 over the 9”
echo.
CONTRAST

CALIBRATION

• Press
REJECT

VEL

• Wait for a steady reading,

then press .
• Use the keypad to enter a
thickness of 9.000 inches.
• Press to complete the
calibration.
ACTS
CALIBRATE FOR SENSITIVITY
1. Couple the probe to the IIW Type 1 Reference
Block so that the transducer is aimed at the 0.060”
side drilled hole.
2. Move the probe forward and backward to peak up
the echo (The “Peak Memory” feature aids in this
process)
0.060” side
drilled hole
IIW TYPE 1 REFERENCE BLOCK

3. Lock in a reference gain and enable scanning gain

R EF

by pressing 2 F ND
then . GAIN

ACTS
 “TOGGLE” FEATURE

• When utilizing angle beam transducers

during inspections, the user can select which
sound path reading is displayed in large
text.

• Press:
ECHO-ECHO

DEPTH
%AMP then F4

ACTS
 CALIBRATE 5" RANGE ON IIW
BLOCK TYPE 1
1. Place straight beam 3. Change to an angle
transducer on 3.6" beam transducer and
sound path. aim beam down 4"
radius.
2. Position back
4. Set first back reflection
reflections at 4 & 8 on at 8 on the horizontal
the horizontal scale scale using Delay (Zero
using Delay (Zero Offset control).
Offset) and Range Note: Do not adjust Range
controls. control after connecting
angle beam transducer.
ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Detectability: the ability to reflect from a
material interface of a given size (e.g., a
discontinuity). Detectability improves as
wavelength decreases. Wavelength is
decreased by increasing test frequency

ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Penetration: the ability to pass through a
material interface of a given size (e.g., grain
boundaries and inherent porosity).
Penetration and detectability are inversely
related. Penetration improves as
wavelength increases. Wavelength is
increased by decreasing test frequency

ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity: the ability of the test system to
display a given size reflector at a given
distance along the sound beam axis.
Sensitivity depends primarily on six factors:
– Beam Spread
– Near Field Length
– Frequency Bandwidth
– Transducer Crystal Material
– Test System Signal to Noise Ratio
– Resolution
ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Beamspread: As beamspread is decreased,
more sound pressure per unit area strikes a
reflector, thus increasing echo amplitude.
Beamspread is decreased by increasing
transducer area and/or increasing frequency.

ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Near Field Length: As near field length varies,
the position of a reflector relative to the y0 point
likewise varies. Sensitivity is optimized when
the reflector is positioned near the beginning of
the far field.

ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Frequency Bandwidth: As bandwidth is
decreased, sensitivity increases. Bandwidth is
decreased by decreasing transducer damping.
– Transducer Crystal Material: Piezoelectric
crystal materials vary in their efficiency as both
transmitters and receivers of sound.
– Test System Signal to Noise Ratio: Signal/Noise
Ratio depends on a number of factors such as
penetration and test instrument design.
ACTS
 TEST PERFORMANCE
VARIABLES
• Sensitivity (continued)
– Resolution: the ability of the test system to
individually display reflectors located at slightly
different depths along the sound beam
– Resolution is directly proportional to
Frequency Bandwidth, inversely related to
pulse length, and improves as wavelength is
decreased.

ACTS
 INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
• Instrument performance should be checked
prior to use in order to verify that test
output will be valid.
• An important instrument performance
category is linearity.
• Linearity means that output is proportional
to input.

ACTS
 INSTRUMENT PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
• Different codes, standards, specifications,
and procedures have individual
requirements regarding which performance
characteristics are checked, as well as how
they are to be done.

ACTS
 INSTRUMENT
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
• Instrument performance characteristics
include, but are not limited to:
– Horizontal Linearity
– Vertical Linearity
– Amplitude Control Linearity
– Dynamic Range
– Signal-to-Noise Ratio

ACTS
 HORIZONTAL LINEARITY

• Horizontal linearity means that distances

displayed on the instrument’s horizontal
scale are proportional to distances in the
test material.

ACTS
 HORIZONTAL LINEARITY
• An instrument is exhibiting horizontal
linearity when a series of back reflections is
evenly spaced along the horizontal scale.
• Each back reflection’s position must be
observed when the peak of the indication is
raised to the same amplitude (for example,
80% FSH)

ACTS
 VERTICAL LINEARITY
• Vertical linearity means that indication
amplitudes are proportional to voltage
inputs to the instrument.
• Specifically, the indication amplitudes
represent transducer output voltages
produced by echoes received from reflectors
in the test material.

ACTS
 VERTICAL LINEARITY
• Vertical linearity is exhibited when a pair of
indications that are set to a certain amplitude
ratio (for example, 2:1) maintain that ratio as gain
is varied.
• Typically, the amplitude of the higher amplitude
indication is varied by specific increments over a
considerable portion of the display’s vertical
range and the amplitude of the lower amplitude
indication is observed.
ACTS
 GAIN CONTROL LINEARITY
• Gain Control Linearity means that a
specific variation of dB gain will produce an
indication amplitude variation
corresponding to the ratio associated with
that decibel value.
• Specifically, the indication amplitudes
represent transducer output voltages
produced by echoes received from reflectors
in the test material.
ACTS
 DISPLAY DYNAMIC RANGE

• If the gain variation is done in increments of

6dB, it will demonstrate how dynamic range
decreases toward the bottom of the display
screen.

ACTS
 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

• Signal-to Noise Ratio is the amplitude ratio

of valid test indications to system noise
indications.

ACTS
 III – EVALUATION OF BASE
MATERIALS
• Ingots
• Castings
• Slab and Billets
• Plate and Sheet
• Bar and Rod
• Pipe and Tubing
• Forgings

ACTS
 INGOTS
• Technique to be used
– Compressional Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Pipe
– Laminations
– Inclusions
– Voids
– Other?
– Is the ingot to be
tested hot or cold?
ACTS
 CASTINGS
• Techniques to be used?
• Problems to consider
– Surface
– Configuration
– Grain structure
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Inclusions
– Gas voids
– Shrinkage(?)
– Hot tears

ACTS
 SLABS AND BILLETS
• Technique to be used
– Compressional Wave

• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Laminations
– Inclusions
– Other?

ACTS
 PLATE AND SHEET
• Techniques to be used
– Lamb Wave
– Compressional Wave

• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Laminations
– Splits

ACTS
 BAR AND ROD
• Techniques to be used:
– Compressional Wave
– Shear Wave (?)
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Pipe
– Seams(?)

ACTS
 PIPE AND TUBING
• Techniques to be used:
– Compressional Wave
– Shear Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Laminations
– Seams
– Other?

ACTS
 FORGINGS
• Techniques to be used:
– Compressional Wave
• Discontinuities to be detected:
– Bursts
– Inclusions
– Flake
– Other?

ACTS
 IV – ULTRASONIC TEST
APPLICATIONS
• Thickness
• Flat surfaces
• Curved surfaces
• Thick and thin
products
• Irregular shapes
• Welds
• Bonded structures
• Composites

ACTS
 APPLICATIONS
• Compressional
– Plate, Thickness, Bar, Castings,Forgings
• Shear
– Pipe, Tubing, Welds
• Surface
– Surface discontinuities
• Lamb
– Thin sheet
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
 THICKNESS
TESTING

ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
 HOW TO INSPECT:
• Flat surfaces -
• Curved surfaces -
• Thick and thin
products -
• Irregular shapes –
• Bonded structures –
• Composites -
ACTS
 ULTRASONIC
WELD INSPECTION
• Calculations
– V-path
– Leg length
– Skip distance
– Surface distance
– Depth
• Weld discontinuities

ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• V-Path
• Leg Length
• Skip Distance
Note: It is necessary to first mark the
transducer beam index point and then
determine refracted angle in order to perform
these calculations.
ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• V-Path: the angular v-shaped sound path
traveled by the sound beam from the sound entry
point on the test object to the opposite surface and
back again to the entry surface.
– Calculation is necessary for determining range scale
prior to angle beam distance calibration.

ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating V-Path:

2t
V  Path 
cos 
Where:
t = plate thickness
 = refracted angle

ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate the V-Path where:
t = 2 inches
 = 70º

22  4
V  Path    11 .7
cos 70 .342
ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Leg Length: the angular sound path traveled by
the sound beam from the sound entry point on the
test object to the opposite surface (1/2 V-Path).
– Calculation necessary for determining in which leg the
discontinuity was intercepted

ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Leg Length:

t
Leg Length 
cos 
Where:
t = plate thickness
 = refracted angle

ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate the Leg Length where:
t = 2 inches
 = 70º

2 2
Leg Length    5.85
cos  .342
ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Skip Distance: the surface distance across
one full V-Path.
– Calculation necessary for determining the
extent of scanning during weld inspection.

ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Skip Distance:

Skip Dis tan ce  2t  tan 

Where:
t = plate thickness
 = refracted angle

ACTS
 CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate the Skip Distance where:
t = 2 inches
 = 70º

Skip Dis tan ce  22  tan 70  4  2.7475  10.99

ACTS
 LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Surface Distance: The distance along the test
material surface from the sound entry point to the
point directly above the point of sonic impact on
the reflector.

ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Surface Distance:

Surface Dis tan ce  sin   Soundpath

Where:
t = plate thickness
 = refracted angle

ACTS
 LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate Surface Distance where:
t=2“
 = 70º
Sound Path = 5”

Surface Dis tan ce  sin 70  50

Surface Dis tan ce  .9397  5  4.69

ACTS
 LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
• Depth: Distance of the reflector beneath
the test surface.

Depth in 1st Leg

Depth in 2nd Leg

ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating depth of (1st leg)

Depth1 Leg   cos   Soundpath

st

Where:
t = plate thickness
 = refracted angle

ACTS
 LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate Defect Depth where:
t=2“
 = 70º
Sound Path = 5”

Depth  cos 70  5 0

Depth  .342  5  1.71

ACTS
LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Formula for calculating Flaw Depth (2 nd leg)

Depth2 Leg   2t  cos   Soundpath 

nd

Where:
t = plate thickness
 = refracted angle

ACTS
 LOCATION CALCULATIONS
FOR WELD INSPECTION
Example
Calculate Flaw Depth where:
t=2“
 = 70º
Sound Path = 7”

Depth  2  2  cos 70  7 
0

Depth  4  .342  7  1.61

ACTS
ACTS
ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Unwelded Beveled Plates

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Good Weld (Free of discontinuities)

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Base Metal De-Lamination

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Lack of Penetration

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Lack of Root Fusion

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Root Undercut

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Weld Metal Root Crack

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Cap Undercut

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Toe Crack

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Side Wall Lack of Fusion

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Inter-Bead Lack of Fusion

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Porosity

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Slag Inclusions

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Weld Metal Center Crack

ACTS
WELD DISCONTINUITIES
Transverse Crack

ACTS
 VI - UT TRANSDUCER
CHARACTERISTICS

• Construction
• Transducer types
• Transducer
performance

ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Crystal element: thickness determines
frequency of vibration
– the thinner the crystal, the higher the frequency

ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Electrodes: establish electrical contact with
the crystal

ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Frontal Member
– Contact transducers: wear plate provides
protective contact surface
– Immersion transducers: waterproof front
surface instead of wear plate

ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION
• Damping Block:
– controls crystal ringing
– absorbs rear sound waves

ACTS
TRANSDUCER CONSTRUCTION

• Complete
transducer
assembly is called
– a transducer, or
– a search unit, or
– a probe

ACTS
TRANSDUCER TYPES

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Straight Beam, Contact: introduces sound
perpendicular to the test surface to obtain
echoes from reflectors parallel to the test
surface

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES

• Delay Line: high

resolution near surface
flaw detection, plus
thickness gauging on
thin materials with
smooth back surface

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES

• Delay line transducers

consist of three parts:
crystal element,
replaceable plastic
delay line, and a
threaded collar to
secure the delay line

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Paintbrush: long, rectangular active area,
usually made from a "mosaic" of crystals,
for rapid scanning of large surfaces

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Dual Element: for testing materials thinner
than approximately 1"
– especially effective for thickness gauging of
materials with corroded/eroded back surfaces

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES

• Angle Beam:
introduces sound at an
angle to the test
surface to obtain
echoes from reflectors
obliquely oriented to
the test surface

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER TYPES
• Immersion: for use in a liquid environment
– focused: concave surface

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER PERFORMANCE

• Transducers have design characteristics

which significantly affect performance:
– Surface Dimensions (e.g., diameter)
– Frequency of Vibration
– Frequency Bandwidth

ACTS
 TRANSDUCER PERFORMANCE
CHECKS
• Frequency response
– Sensitivity
– Center frequency
– Bandwidth
– Sound field measurements
• Near surface resolution
• Depth resolution
• Angle of refraction (angle beam transducers)
ACTS
 VII - CODES, STANDARDS,
SPECIFICATIONS AND PROCEDURES
• Overview of commonly used standards
• Definition of Codes, Standards, and
Specifications
• Structure of Standards
– Elements of a test procedure
• Samples/excerpts of Specifications
• Weld discontinuity evaluations
ACTS
 OVERVIEW OF COMMON
STANDARDS
• ASTM
• AWS
• ASME
• API
• Military Standards
• Construction Standards

ACTS
 CODES, STANDARDS, AND
SPECIFICATIONS
• What is a Code?
– Statutes or rules methodically arranged defining
minimum requirements
• What is a Standard?
– A document that has been developed, established,
and approved through the consensus process
• What is a Specification?
– An explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by
a material, product, system or service

ACTS
 STRUCTURE OF STANDARDS
1. Instrumentation
2. Calibration
3. Search unit data
4. Display settings
5. Area to be scanned and scanning techniques
6. Indications to be recorded and record format
7. Accept/reject criteria
8. Personnel certifications/qualifications
ACTS
 ELEMENTS OF A TEST
PROCEDURE
1. Scope
2. Reference Documents
3. Personnel Qualification
4. Equipment Specifications
5. Reference Standards

ACTS
 ELEMENTS OF A TEST
PROCEDURE (con’t)
6. Equipment Qualification
7. Test Calibration
8. Test Technique
9. Accept/Reject Criteria
10. Recording/Reporting Procedure

ACTS
 SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS
• Refer to 180 to 189 in the Classroom
Training Manual

ACTS
 VIII - EVALUATION OF UT
RESULTS

• Amplitude
• Signal position
• Signal shape
• Signal movement
• Orientation

ACTS
 REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
• Two classes of evaluation techniques for
reflector size estimation
• Reflector Mapping Techniques
– plotting the shape of a reflector (used for infinite
reflectors)
• Reflector Comparison Techniques
– for comparing amplitude of reflectors in the test
object to a reference reflector (used for small
reflectors)
ACTS
 REFLECTOR SIZE
ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR MAPPING TECHNIQUE
• Half amplitude (6 dB drop) technique:
• The center of the sound beam is used to map
the perimeter or length of a reflector
• The center of the sound beam is located by
finding the point on a reflector where sound
amplitude decreases to one half (-6 dB) of full
beam amplitude

ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
• Distance Amplitude
Correction (DAC)
curve technique: a
curve showing
amplitude versus
distance for a given
reflector is manually
or electronically
plotted on the CRT
screen
ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES
• Time Varied Gain
technique: the test
instrument varies gain
as a function of
distance so that a
given reflector exhibits
the same displayed
amplitude at all
distances

ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES

• Test block technique:

reflectors in test
objects are compared
to machined reflectors
in Distance Amplitude
reference blocks

ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES

• Flat-bottomed holes
are effective as
reference reflectors
for straight beam
transducers

ACTS
REFLECTOR SIZE ESTIMATION
REFLECTOR COMPARISON TECHNIQUES

• AWS formula technique: the difference in

amplitude between an indication from the
test object and a reference reflector is
corrected by a constant value for distance
losses

ACTS
 REPORTING DATA
• Instrument identification
• Transducer(s) frequency, size, type, and
serial numbers
• Part details (material, thickness, etc.)
• Procedure/technique used
• Scanning
• Indications - size, location, type
• Inspector, date, etc.
ACTS
 ADVANTAGES OF UT

• Greater thicknesses than RT possible

• Portable
• Only one side needs to be accessible
• Provides precise thickness and flaw depth
• Volumetric and high sensitivity
• Can be automated
• No radiation hazard
ACTS
 LIMITATIONS OF UT

• Coarse material structure

• Couplant required
• Highly qualified personnel essential
• Near surface discontinuities difficult to detect
• Orientation of discontinuity
• Rough surface conditions

ACTS
ACTS