DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Electromechanical Engineering
Course name: Embedded Systems &
Digital Control (5)
Course code:
 By: Amanuel M.
 2014 E.C./2022 G.C.
Chapter- 2: Revision of Digital Control System
Content of the Chapter
1. Overview of continuous time control VS digital/discrete control system
2. Linear Difference Equation
3. Z-Transform
4. Sampled Step
5. Properties of Z-Transform
6. Final value theorem
7. Discrete Integration
8. Transfer Function in DCS
9. Linearity and Stationarity
10. Stability of Digital Control Systems
11. Frequency Response of Discrete Time Systems
12. Discrete State-Space & Solutions
13. Discretization methods
 Major Objectives of the Chapter

 To recall you the basic idea & difference between continuous & discrete

time controller from your pervious knowledge.

 To regain the analysis techniques of Z-transform.

 To have you the knowledge of frequency domain analysis for control and

recall the methods of designing the controller of digital time system.

 Stability of Digital Control Systems

 To have in mind the discretization methods.

1. Over-view of Continuous Time Control (CTC)

• The manner in which a dynamic system responds to an input,

expressed as a function of time, is called the time response.

• The theoretical evaluation of this response is said to be undertaken in

the time domain i.e. time domain analysis.

• It is possible to compute the time response of a system if the following

is known.
Cont.

 The nature of the input(s), expressed as a function of time.

 The mathematical model of the system.
• The time response of any system has two components:

1. Transient response: is part of a response which goes to zero after interval of

time t. ().

2. Steady-state response: is part of a response which exists along time

following any input signal (constant: ramp: , sinusoidal: , or parabolic: )
Cont.

 In order to compute the time response of a dynamic system, it is necessary

to solve the differential equation.

 There are a number of analytical and numerical techniques available to do

this, but the one favored by control engineers is the use of the Laplace
Transform.

 This technique transforms the problem from time domain(t) to the Laplace
domain(s).
Cont.

 The advantage in doing this is that the complex time domain differential
equations become relatively simple s-domain algebraic equations.

 When a suitable solution is arrived at, it will be inverse transformed.

 The Laplace transform of a function of time 𝑓(𝑡) is given by the integral

𝓛[𝐟(𝐭)] =

 Where s is a complex variable 𝝈 ±𝒋𝝎 and is called Laplace operator.

Cont.

 Transfer function

• A transfer function (TF) is the Laplace transform of a differential equation

with zero initial conditions.

• TF = G(s) =
Cont.

 Generalized control problem

 The control action u(t) will be such that the controlled output c(t) will be
equal to the reference input for all values of time, irrespective of the value
of the disturbance input .

 In practice there will always be transient errors (e), but notice that the
transient period/error should be kept as small as possible.
2. Digital control system (DCS) & Analysis

 Discrete signal is called discrete time if it is only defined for particular points in
time ‘t’.

2.1. Linear Difference Equation

Let: 𝐼𝑁𝑃𝑈𝑇𝑆 =>

=>

• To get the next output the computer needs to compute some function, can
be expressed as:
Cont.

• Digital system I/O relation first must be expresses using some analysis techniques,
called Z-transform.

• The Z-transform is an important tool in the analysis and design of discrete-time

systems. It simplifies the solution of discrete time problems by converting LTI
difference equations to algebraic equations and convolution to multiplication.
Cont.

2.2. Z-Transform
 Definition 1:
Given the causal sequence:
its Z-transform is
, time delay operation
Cont.

 Definition 2:
 Given the impulse train representation of a discrete time signal

 The Laplace transform of the above equation is:

Let
Cont.

 Properties of Z-Transform
1. Linearity:

2. Convolution of time Sequences:

3. Time Delay:

 Example: Find the z-transform of the causal sequence

Cont.

4. Multiplication by Exponential:

5. Inversion:
 Long Division
 Partial Fraction Expansion
Cont.

 Examples: common functions Z-transform:

2.3. Final value theorem

a sequence that decays to zero as k tends to infinity.

The z- transform of ,

 Final-Value Theorem:
Poles of are inside the unit circle if
2.4. Discrete Integration

1. Forward rectangular rule

2. Backward rectangular rule

Cont.

3. Trapezoid rule

2.5. Transfer Function

If
2.6. Linearity and Stationarity

 Linearity: A system with input e and output u is linear if superposition

applies.

 Then for any scalar 𝛼 𝑎𝑛 𝑑 𝛽

The response to:
is
Cont.

 Stationarity: A system is stationary or time invariant, if a time shift in the

input results in only a time shift in the output.

 Impulse response

 the response of a discrete time system to a unit impulse is known as the

impulse response sequence.
Cont.

 To derive this relationship, we first represent the input sequence in terms of

discrete impulses as follows:

 For a linear system, the principle of superposition applies and the system
output due to the input is the following sum of impulse response sequence.
Cont.

 The output at time k is given by

 For a causal system: the response due to an impulse at time i is an impulse

response starting at time i and the delayed response satisfies
Cont.

 In other words a causal system is one whose impulse response is a causal

time sequence.
Cont.

 Example: Given the discrete time system

Find the impulse response of the system :

1. From the difference equation

2. Using z-transform
Cont.
2.6. Stability of Digital Control Systems

1) Asymptotic Stability: a system is Asymptotically stable if the response to any

initial conditions decays to zero asymptotically.

• If the response due to the initial conditions remains bounded but does not decay to
zero, the system is said to be marginally stable.

2) Bounded-Input-Bounded-Output Stability: A system is said to be bounded-input-

bounded-output(BIBO) stable if its response to any bounded input remains bounded.
Cont.

 Stable Z-Domain Pole Location

• Asymptotic Stability: in the absence of pole-zero cancellation, an LTI

digital system is asymptotically stable if its transfer function poles are
inside the unit circle and marginally stable if the poles are in the unit
circle with no repeated poles on the unit circle.
Cont.

 Example: Check the stability of the following transfer functions.

1) , not stable Pole, z = 2 is outside
the unit circle.
2) , Asymptotically stable
All poles, z = 0.2 & z = 0.1
3) , Asymptotically stable are inside the unit circle.

4) , Marginally stable All poles, z = 0.2 & z = 0.1

are inside the unit circle.

Due to pole, z = 1 is in the

unit circle.
Cont.

 BIBO Stability

• A discrete time linear system is BIBO stable if and only if its impulse
response sequence is absolutely summable.

• A discrete time linear system is BIBO stable if and only if the poles of its
transfer function lie inside the unit circle.
2.7. Frequency Response of Discrete Time Systems

 Discrete time frequency response is a response of a system to a sampled

sinusoidal input.
 It is now possible to define a transfer function for sampled inputs as:

 In terms of the complex variable :

Cont.

Thus, the frequency response is given by:

Magnitude Angle

• Where; NB:

 Frequency response of first order system

 Let;
Where;
Cont.

 Substitute the above equation to get;

 Rationalize the above equation;

Cont.

 After rearrange real and imaginary parts;

• Frequency response design approaches, especially design based on bode

plots, are very popular in the design of control systems.
Cont.

• The fact that the bode plots of rational loop gains can be approximated by
straight lines, if the transfer function is minimum phase, the phase can be
determined from the plot of the magnitude, and this allows as to simplify
the design of a compensator that provides specified stability properties.

• Unfortunately, discrete transfer functions are not rational functions in 𝑗𝜔

because the frequency is introduced through the substitution in the z-
transfer function.
Cont.

• Hence, the simplification provided by methods based on Bode plots for

analog system is lost.

• A solution to this problem is to bi-linearly transform the z-plane into a

new plane, called the W-plane, where the corresponding transfer function
is rational and where the Bode approximation is valid.

• Where; ,
Cont.

• This will give us;

• Finally;

• This transforms the transfer function of a system from the z-plane to

the w-plane.

• Then we can plot the frequency response in the someway we plot

continuous time frequency response.
Cont.

 Example:
Cont.

• Common functions Laplace vs. z-transform

2.7. Discrete State-Space

 For continuous time state space will be;

 The general solution of continuous time differential equation is;

 Let the initial time , and the final time

, the discrete time solution becomes;
Cont.

 Let, , so

,
-is the discrete time state matrix
-is discrete input matrix

 The discrete time state matrix is the state transition matrix for the analog system
evaluated at the sampling period T.
Cont.

 Discretization method-1:
• The most important function is the exponential function .

• Based on Taylor series expansion:

Converges for all finite and t, therefor

Cont.

 Discretization method-2:
• For invertible state matrix A, the integral of the matrix exponential given by;
Cont.

• Applying the above matrix property,

2.8. Solution of Discrete State Space

:
Cont.

 The equation generalized to;

 The Discrete time output becomes;

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