MINERAL EXPLORATION

AND RESOURCE
EVALUATION
Geol-4123
Tesfaye Demissie (PHD)
Tel. 251-910531644/251-944714043,
e-mail: tesfayecg@gmail.com
dr.tesfaye.demissie@aastu.edu.et
Objective / Aim:
To deliver :
 knowledge and skills on the prospecting and exploration of mineral resources
 with basic understanding of occurrence of a mineral deposit in space and time

Expected Out comes:

 Student should be able to make right decision in

selecting appropriate technical methods of mineral exploration

Familiar : Fundamentals of a mineral/ore resources

exploration and evaluation
Course delivery: Lecture, tutorial , group discussion and assignment

Assessment: Attendance, at least four tests (50%) and final exam (50%)
Course outline

1. Introduction to Mineral resource and exploration (2 hrs)

• Mineral Resource
• Historical Background
• Nature of Mineral exploration techniques
2. Geological mapping and prospecting (2 hrs)
• Importance of geological mapping and prospecting
• Traditional prospecting methods
3. Sampling and Analytical techniques (3 hrs)
• Sampling and sample preparation
• Laboratory techniques
4. Geochemical Prospecting (4 hrs)
• Distribution of elements
• Primary and secondary dispersion
• Treatment of data
• Types of geochemical surveys

3
 5. Geophysical Prospecting (3 hrs)
 Introduction to geophysical prospecting
 Gravity survey
 Magnetic survey
 Electric and electromagnetic survey
 Seismic survey
 Radiometric survey
 Well-log techniques
 6. Underground Sampling Methods (3 hrs)
 Pitting and trenching
 Auger drilling
 Hand-held percussion drills
 Wagons drilling
 Banka drilling
 RC drilling
 Diamond drilling
 7. Documentation and Ore Reserve Calculation (4 hrs)
 Ore and ores reserves
 Plan methods, Cross section methods
 Steeply dipping ore bodies
 Ore bodies of variable dip
 Use of ore block
 Cut-off grade
8. Mineral Resources and Evaluation (4 hrs)
• Prospecting economic mineral deposits
• Evaluation and ground development

9. Exploitation of Mineral Resources (5 hrs)

• Introduction of mineral dressing
• Mining methods
• Economic feasibility studies

5
 Mineral Resources
Resource: Total amount of a commodity
with particular economic use
Commodities Au, Ag, Al, Coal, crude oil, Iron ore etc
 Sum of both extractable and non
extractable commodities
 Extractable
Comprises: 1) Ore deposit
a) Precious metals (e.g. Au, Pt, Ag)
b) non-ferrous (base metals) (e.g. Cu, Pb,
Zn, Al)
c) Iron and ferro alloy metals (e.g. Mn, Ni,
Cr, Co etc. )
d) Minor metals and related non-metals
(e.g. As, Be , REE, Ta, Nb etc)
f) Fissionable elements (e.g. U, Th)

2) Industrial minerals and rocks (e.g.

Graphite, kaoline, Marble, Limestone)

3) Gemstones (e.g. Emrald, aquamarine etc)

5) Energy resources (e.g. coal, Oil, Gas,

Geothermal energy)

6) Construction raw materials (e.g. Basalt,

Scoria etc. )
Emrald (Kenticha) Black tourmaline (Kenticha)
Tourmaline (Kenticha): Green and pink
Beryl/aquamarine (Kenticha)
Aluto Geothermal Field
Construction material (Baro undifferentiated gneiss)
Daleti marble
Non-extractable (non-economical)

Average crustal abundance

Eg. Cr, Ni, Co, are associated with

mafic-ultramafic rocks

Ta, Nb, Zr, U are associated with felsic

rocks
Extractable (Economical)

 Concentrated by natural process

Natural Processes:
1) Magmatic
2) Hydrothermal
3) Sedimentary
4) Placer
5) Residual
Au, Ag

MOTHER LODE

Magmas can form near

subduction zones when
water causes partial melting
of nearby mantle. Granitic
magmas form by
fractionation of basaltic
magmas and by assimilation.
Once the granite has frozen,
silica-rich late fractionation
waters with dissolved metals
are left to intrude nearby
rock.

Most searches near continental volcanic arcs

e.g. Andes (Inca Gold) , Sierra Nevada (1849 gold rush)
 Initially Basaltic, rising magma may become silica-rich through two processes.

Fractionation and Assimilation

Assimilation

Fractionation
Granitic melt genesis
 Metal-rich waters may originate from the magma or groundwater
Au, Ag

Metal ores precipitate

near surface

Heated
groundwater
dissolves metals

Two mechanisms for metals emplacement near granitic intrusions (both occur)
 Ore mineral Gold Au
Gold Ore

Gangue Mineral Quartz

Popular term “Mother Lode” initial placement

Ore Body
a) b)

c) d)
Placers: Gold is concentrated as a detrital sediment
Strongly weathered and variegated color of metasandstone section view
 Magma 2: formation at divergence
Seawater gets into
zone
Black Smoker cracks, heats up near
on cracks near magma magma, dissolves metals Cu, Fe, etc
MOR in mafic rocks, convection
currents return hydrothermal
waters to cold ocean waters
(also ion-rich). Sulfides precipitate
forming a Black Smoker

Decompression melting
 Cu, Fe

Example:
Sterling Hill

Black Smokers
Island of Cyprus made of
Ophiolites with black smokers.
Source of copper that started
bronze age

http://collections.ic.gc.ca/geoscience

Circulation of hot water in cracks at mid-ocean ridge dissolves metals in Basalt, (Copper, Iron, Zinc, Lead,
Barium) which are re-precipitated as various ores, often Sulfides. Accumulate in ocean sediments.
Major metallic mineral deposits of Ethiopia

 Precious metals (Au, Pt)

Rare Metals (Ta, Nb)
Ni and Fe

Status
Active
Legedembi Gold mining
Kenticha Ta-Nb
 Some Important Ores and a deposit
Native Ores: Gold Au, Copper Cu, Platinum Pt
Base Metal Ores: Bauxite (mostly Gibbsite Al(OH)3),
Hematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4
Sulfide Ores: Silver as Argentite Ag2S, Copper as
Bornite Cu5FeS4, Chalcopyrite CuFeS2, or Chalcocite
Cu2S, Mercury as Cinnabar HgS, Lead as Galena PbS,
and Zinc as Sphalerite ZnS
Oxide Ores: Uranium as Uraninite UO2, Titanium as
Ilmenite FeTiO3, Tantalite, Ta2O5
Steps in obtaining mineral commodities
1. Prospecting: finding places where ores occur.
2. Mineral exploration and development: learn whether ore
can be extracted economically.
3. Mining: extract ore from ground.
4. Beneficiation: separate ore minerals from other mined
rock. (Mill)
5. Refining: extract pure commodity from the
ore mineral. (Refinery)
6. Transportation: carry commodity to market.
7. Marketing and Sales: Find buyers and sell the
commodity.
Historical back ground of Mineral exploration

 The history mineral exploration extends before the mid 16th century

 Prospector who panned gold or looking for iron stains or Gossan were looking for

Buried deposits

 The difference between the ancient and the modern exploration geochemist is

The ancient were using mineralogical observation

The modern are using chemical analysis

 At the mid 16th century the use of chemical analysis of natural waters, springs and
plants in mineral prospecting began (hydrogeogeochemistry and biogeochemistry)

Observing some minerals in the water residue

discoloration and physical changes of plants related to the toxic
elements in soils
Chinese :observed the occurrence of certain species of plants near the deposits
Tin, Copper, Gold and Silver (before Mid 16th)

 From 17th century on wards the use of chemical and biogeochemical methods
become common practice

So that: Modern method of exploration geochemistry is not entirely a new concept

but developed sensitive new methods capable of extracting high quality
information's

History of modern exploration geochemistry

Began 1930’s by USSR which was followed shortly thereafter by the Scandinavians

 In 1932 USSR used emission spectroscopy for soil and weathered rock sampling for
Copper, Lead, Tungsten , Nickel etc. deposits

Western world: did not attract much attention until World War –II.

Exploration Geochemistry began seriously about 1947 by USGS

Advancement modem Geochemical exploration for the last 50 years

1. The recognition of primary and secondary dispersion halos

2. The development of rapid and accurate analytical methods as well

as modern laboratory equipments

3. The use of different statistical and computer methods for interpretation

of analytical data
Prospecting: finding where ores occur
- First stage of Mineral exploration
Important Factors:
• Presence of traditional mining activity
• Applying knowledge of association of ores with specific geological
settings.

• using remote sensing techniques such as satellite imagery, seismic reflection

profiles, magnetic field intensity, strength of gravity to detect geological
structures.
• photos useful in finding faults.
• small basaltic intrusions have prominent magnetic anomalies.
• dense ore bodies can have prominent gravity anomaly.
• developing detailed maps of rock types and geological structures (faults,
folds, intrusions).
• developing 3-d picture of geological structures containing ore.
• obtaining samples of ore for chemical analysis.
 Modern Prospecting

rely on training,
the study of geology, and
prospecting technology

•Knowledge of prospecting in an area helps in determining

location of new prospective areas.

•Prospecting includes geological mapping, rock assay analysis,

and sometimes the intuition of the prospector
 Mineral Exploration
► Mineral Exploration is the process in searching commercially
viable concentration of minerals (ore) in order to mine or
exploit.
► It is a successive work, much more intensive, organized and
professional form.
 Mineral exploration: learn how and whether
ore can be extracted economically
 Objective : find maximum number of economic deposits
: Minimum cost and time
-Risk of failure is great
- Capital intensive

• Define size, shape and grade of ore body.

Grade, G: mass of commodity per mass of ore.
Gold: 5 grams of Au per metric ton (106 grams of ore)
Grade = 5 x 10-6.
Aluminum: 400 kg of Al per metric ton of ore, G=0.4
• Drill cores, though expensive, can be used to determine
underground extent of ore
Estimate the mass of the commodity:
= (volume of ore body x density of ore body x grade).
1 metric ton = “tone” is 1000 kilograms
 ► In nature these elements are found dispersed in the
secondary environment (soils, rocks, stream sediments
or plants) long after the formation of a mineral deposit. 
► Dispersion results in the transport of ore minerals
away from a source.
► Mechanical weathering and erosion leads to the
breakdown of host rocks containing ore minerals. 
► Consequently, tiny grains of the minerals occur in
the suspended load of the stream.
 The biggest deposits are formed when the source is large
the transport mechanism is efficient, and the trap is active
and ready
neral prospecting/exploration involves:
Traditional and modern methods

Traditional mineral prospecting methods:

- traditional (artisanal) mining by locals

- use traditional tools (batya, crusher) and technique (like panning)
- baseda)on practical checking not systematic
b)

vantage: in come generation for the locals

Great contribution for country economy
Gives information about the amount and the nature of the resource

sadvantage : waste of enormous amount of the resource

c) a)
2. Modern Mineral Exploration involves:
a) geochemical exploration (exploration geochemistry) techniques

b) geophysical exploration (exploration geophysics) techniques

Applied at different scale

-Reconnaissance, regional, follow-up, semi detail and detail

Stages in mineral exploration

1. Area selection
2. Target Generation
2.1 Area selection is based on applying the theories behind ore genesis
► Ore genesis theories generally focuses on three components:
 Source
Source is required because metal must come from somewhere, and be
liberated by some process
 Transport or conduit
It is required first to move the metal bearing fluids or solid minerals into the right position, and act as chemical or physical phenomenon which
encourage movement
 and trap
Trapping is required to concentrate the metal via some physical, chemical or geological mechanism into a concentration which forms mineable
ore

► The biggest deposits are formed when the source is large the transport mechanism is
efficient, and the trap is active and ready
► In an area selection the procedure requires reviewing all available information
-Geological mapping in mineral exploration

done at different scale : From reconnaissance up to detail based on objective, confidence

and stage of exploration

Important: 1) to examine the type and area of possible mineralization,

2) to understand the geological factors controlling the mineralization
3) for planning the mineral exploration activity and for project design

Type Scale Objective

Regional >100,000 Project design

Area decreases
Follow-up 25,000-50,000
Done systematically

Semi detail 5,000-10,000 Delineation of a mineralized zone

Detail < 5,000

 Geological mapping methods: unsystematic (regional) and systematic (grid based
after follow-up stage)

Reginald mapping technique

 Covers large area (>100,000 scale)

 Useful for project design based on geology

 Mapping is done by making field checking the features interpreted from satellite
images or areal photos with compilation of previous works

• Data collected can be unsystematic (randomly),at large distance

Follow-up up to detail mapping

 done systematically (grid based) based on the

purpose and scale

Base line: A line cut parallel to the strike of the

lithologies along maximum length of the area of
exploration.

Profile lines: Evenly spaced lines cut perpendicular

to the strike of lithologies along the base line

Observation (data) points: Evenly spaced data

collection points along the profile line

Observation point X Profile line spacing = Scale

 Geochemical Distribution of Elements

Deals with relative and absolute abundance of chemical elements in

- Earth
- Atmosphere
- Hydrosphere

Clarke value : Average percentage of an element in the earth crust

Goldschimidt Classification: classified the elemental distribution

with in the earth in to four
1. Lithophile elements : are those elements with strong affinity with oxygen
(Rock loving) they concentrate in the crust as silicate and oxide minerals

 Al, B, Ba, Be, Br, Ca, Cl, Cr, Cs, F, I, Hf, K, Li, Mg, Na, Nb, O, P, Rb, Sc, Si, Sr, Ta, Th, Ti, U, V
Y, Zr, W and the lanthanides.

2. Siderophile elements : are principally metals that alloy readily with iron
(Iron loving) = Transition metals Mn, Fe, Co, Ni etc
 scarce in the earth crust by their concentration in the Nickel-Iron Core

3. Chalcophile elements : are those with strong affinity with sulfur; they mainly
(Ore loving) occur as sulfides which include
(Ag, As, Bi, Cd, Cu, Ga, Ge, Hg, In, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Te, Tl and Zn )
- Heavy metals than non-metals,
- remain close to the surface combining with sulfur,
- low affinity with oxygen
- they form insoluble sulfides
Abundance in the earth crust = Lithophile>Chalcophile>Siderophile
4. Atmophile elements (Volatile elements) : are gases, such as (H, C, N and noble
gases)
(Gas loving) – occur as liquid and /or gas on or above the surface of the earth
NB: some elements have affinity to more than one phase (V, Cr etc)
 ••et
Goldschmidt classification in •e
the periodic table                           
Goldschmidt classification: Lithophile Siderophile Chalcophile Atmophile Synthetic

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Group →

↓ Period

1 2
1
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Lithophile Siderophile Chalcophile Atmophile

 Geochemical Environment
Dispersion of elements: a process causing the
distribution or re-distribution of elements by physical or
chemical agencies

 related to the geochemical environments

Geochemical environments: Two types (Primary and

secondary) Based on P, T and Chemistry

Primary environment: embraces from lower level of

circulating meteoric water extending to the deepest level
of crust and may extend up to the mantle

- High T, P and little free oxygen, limited movement of

fluids
Secondary Environment: comprises surficial processes of
weathering, soil formation and sedimentation at the surface of
the earth

-Low T, P, abundant free oxygen and other gases particularly

carbon dioxide, relatively free flow of fluids

-Mobility of major (>1%), minor (<1%) and trace elements

(trace amount<0.1%) also depends in their radius and charge
Geochemical cycle

The movement of earth materials from one

environment to another can be conveniently
visualized in terms of a closed cycle referred
to as the geo chemical cycle
 c ro ck s
Mafi
t in uous
discon
Olivine

Pyroxene

Amphibole

Mica

Quartz

K-feldspar
Bowen’ s rxn series

Na-Plagioclase
Ca-plagioclase

Fels
i c ro
cks
continu
ous

P, T decrease
Distribution of elements in Igneous rocks and minerals

Increasing concentration of some

elements in magma
Increasing stability in a
weathering zone
 Primary and Secondary Dispersions of Elements

Geochemical Dispersion: the process in which small mass of material (atoms

and particles) move to new locations and geochemical environment

Factors: Mechanical, Chemical and Biological

Two types based on:

 The geochemical environment it is formed

 Whether it is formed before or after the formation of an ore deposit

1. Primary Dispersion :

 Occurs in deep seated environment

 Includes all processes leading to the emplacement of elements during

formation of an ore deposit
2. Secondary Dispersion: applies to the redistribution of the primary
patterns by any later process, usually in the surface environment

The response of an element to dispersion depends on its Mobility

-How easily it can be dispersed relative to other associated elements

Geochemical Mobility: The distribution of elements of the constituent

rocks and minerals in response to various geological processes

Depends on:

1. Chemical property of the mobile phase (Charge and size)

2. Type of geochemical environment

 Association of Elements

INDICATOR ELEMENTS: an element measured to detect an ore body

-It can be the same element of an ore deposit ( e.g. gold for gold deposit) OR

PATHFINDER ELEMENTS: The associated elements with ore element

- If the ore element is difficult to analyze and less mobile

- They are more significant because they have higher mobility

e.g. Arsenic for gold deposit

 Dispersion Halo
Dispersion : is the process of dispersing elements outward from a
source

A dispersion halo: is a zone around a mineral deposit where the

metal values are less than those of the deposit but significantly higher than
the background values found in the country rocks around the deposit
Primary Dispersion Halo: refers to the dispersion which occurs at or near
the time of formation of a mineral deposit

 It is the result of “hydrothermal” (hot aqueous) fluids which are

responsible for creating the deposit

 Due to variability of movements fluids in rocks the shape of primary halo

may or may not reflect the shape of the ore deposit

 The extent is very dependent on the nature of the rock

 Extremely porous or highly fractured rock form extensive primary

Dispersion Halo
Secondary Dispersion Halo: refers to the dispersion which occurs in
the secondary environment (soil, stream sediment or plants) long
after the formation of a mineral deposit.

 It is the result of mechanical and/ or chemical weathering.

 Secondary dispersion halo is much widespread than the primary

dispersion halo
 Types of Geochemical Surveys

1. Stream Sediment Sampling Survey

 Is very useful for mineral exploration because of greater

dispersion in stream sediment

 Greater ability to detect an ore body from greater distance

 So path following the value increase towards the upstream may

lead to mineralization

 Preferred material to collect stream sediment is -100 mesh size

fraction: which corresponds with the silt size
Preferred area for sampling (0.5 to 1kg)

-Flat stream

- Large boulders are good place to filter silt size materials

- Samples should be collected from active stream channel, not dried up side
channel
- Above second and third order stream
Stream sediment
Sampling,
Kenticha area

Location of stream
Sediment,
Dessie map sheet
Heavy Concentrate (Pan concentrate) Sampling Survey

 Similar to Stream Sediment sampling it is used in Reconnaissance and

Regional Geochemical survey

 Relies on concentrating heavy minerals present

Mixed coarse (pebble size) and fine materials panned by wooden batya
down to volume 50 to 100gm sized heavy mineral concentrates

 Observation (shape, size and type of minerals present) and

field counting of visible target minerals with their size using hand lens

Then get dried

 This will be further processed and analyzed in the laboratory commonly

by binacular microscope
 Importance of Pan concentrate samples

Shape of heavy mineral grains indicate distance from the source

Types heavy minerals present in the area

 2
Sample No
Magnetite
Ilmenite
Limonite
Amphibole
Pyroxene
Olivine
fragment
Rock
Rutile
Zircon
Apatite
DE-H-YK-0014 31 4 5 3 28 19 10 tr tr tr
-AM-0032 62 2 5 3 17 11 tr tr tr
-Yk-005 19 2 3 5 41 22 7 tr
-TD-0009 68 3 5 2 11 6 5 tr tr tr
-YK-0013 19 2 5 2 41 23 8 tr
-AM-0009B 89 1 tr tr 7 3 tr tr
-YK-0069 57 2 3 5 23 10 tr
-YT-0062 62 2 tr 3 23 7 3 tr
-YK-0057 83 2 1 tr 7 4 3 tr
-AM-0048 61 3 1 18 15 2 tr
-YT-0054 71 3 2 1 10 8 5 tr
-TD-0006 92 1 tr tr 3 4 tr tr
-AM-0051 37 2 1 2 33 24 tr tr 1
-YT-0065 78 3 tr 3 10 6 tr
-AM-0045 15 5 3 2 33 32 10 tr
 Soil Sampling Survey

 Soils are products of weathering

 decomposition of organic material at the surface

 deposition of transported material

 Soils tend to form certain layer called HORIZON

 Soil survey is employed to investigate target areas outlined by previous

surveys (eg. Stream sediment survey, geophysical survey etc)

 employed on grid based

Soil Profile

A= horizon (decomposed organic material)

B= horizon (Mixed zone)

(Zone of maximum accumulation)

C= horizon (Weathered bed rock) (saprolite)

B- horizon is the best for sampling

If there is no good development of soil horizons C-horizon is sampled

Take care!!!!

• Residual nature of soil

• Topographic effect

• Thickness of soil

Importance of Soil sampling

 to define location, shape and grade variation of an obscured body

 for drill hole targeting

 Rock Chip Sampling Survey

 Sampling of exposed potentially mineral bearing rock

 Chips are taken during initial mapping if promising it will be followed by

subsequent sampling survey

Pit Loam Sampling Survey

 Sampling of weathered bed rock from potential target area for

field panning during detail survey

 15-30 kg sample is panned at the field

 then the counted grains on the concentrates are plotted on the map
Chip samples from quartz vein
Loam sampling activity
Channel Sampling Survey

 Channel samples are collected from deep pits, mineralized outcrop and
trench of outlined potential target area before drilling

 1-2kg channel samples are collected at equal meter interval from

walls and bottom pits and trenches after homogenization for laboratory
Analysis:
to examine the extent and grade distribution of a mineralized body
Pit channel sampling activity
Trench channel sampling activity
Sampling and sample preparation

Required materials for geochemical sampling

1. GPS
2. Compass
3. Hand lens
4. Geological Hummer
5. Meter tape
6. Marker
7. Masking tape
8. Sample bag
9. Field note book
Sampling procedure

1. GPS location
2. Sample type and purpose
3. Sampling depth
4. Homogenization of sample
5. Put in the sample bag
6. Labeling sample number
7. Sample weight
8. Sample description
9. Dry sample should be kept in sample bag
Sample preparation for geochemical analysis

 Sample preparation is done in the laboratory or in the field

 Samples are crushed and grinded to -200mesh size

 Homogenized and quartered

 each 100 to 200gr samples are collected for analysis and backup
 Laboratory analytical techniques

 Method of analysis is determined based on the type of elements to be analyzed

XRF (X-Ray Florescence)

-Mainly for major element oxide analysis

- For high concentrated samples
- Measurement is in wt%
For trace elements analysis

Detection limit: Minimum concentration of the elements detected or

analyzed

Analysis is in ppm and ppb level

1. AAS (Atomic absorption spectroscopy)

 for Au and associated base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Mn, Fe, Ni and Ag)

 Advantage: Chipper method

 Disadvantage : Analyzes limited no of elements

Higher detection limit

2. FA (Fire Assay)

• Some of the samples showing high concentration of gold are checked

• Expensive
 3, ICPMS (Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometers)

 Most preferred because it analyzes almost all trace elements

 lower detection limit (<20ppb)

Treatment of Data (Geostatistics)

Basic Ideas

Threshold Value:  the value chosen above which values are considered anomalous.
Anomalous Values:  any value above the selected threshold value.
Background Values:  “normal” values for the given environment; majority of values are
background values.
 Mean:

Standard deviation (S)

Usually for normal distributed population the threshold value = mean +1S

Usually for normal distributed population the threshold value = >mean +2S

The result is presented as contour or colored map

Geophysical prospecting
 Classification of Geophysical
Methods
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

Magnetics Electrical Radioactive

Geothermic
& EM (-ray

Seismology
Gravity ()
Seismic &
(Magnetic
[( -Resistivity Spectrometry
Susceptibility  (1/ -
() Conductivity.), & Nuclear
& - geophysical
Polarizability,
Magnetization
 -Dielectric methods)
(i & Ir)] Permeability,. )]
 Why geophysics is considered as an
important exploration tool ?
 It helps to map the near subsurface geology under
extensive soil cover (overburden).
 It allows to acquire information about the extension of
important geological features both laterally and
vertically.
 It assists to conduct remote sampling when making of
direct measurement over certain objects becomes
hazardous. In such cases remote sampling becomes the
only way to avoid dangers and/or possible
contaminations of areas surrounding the hazardous
substances.
 Classification of Geophysical
Methods
1. Nature of problems to be solved;
2. Type of platforms;
3. Origin of physical fields
measured at different platforms;
4. Nature of the measured physical
fields;
A.Nature of problems to be solved

1. Structural (solid state) geophysics:

Study the structure (nature) of the earth's
interior;
Solve regional tectonic problems, including
those related to mapping of anticlinal /
synclinal structures having associations with
hydrocarbon deposits (i.e., coal, oil, gas
resources);
2.Mining geophysics:

Mapping of lithologies and structures

having genetic and/or spatial association
with mineralization;
Determining the nature and morphology
of the principal types of deposits;
Directly exploring such mineral deposits,
like iron and uranium.
3.Hydro- & Engineering Geophysics:
Study the subsurface with an aim of
groundwater resource explorations;
Study of groundwater dynamics;
Subsurface investigation of areas where
dams, tunnels, roads, railways, airports,
buildings,...are constructed;
Study geo-hazard prone areas, such as
landslides, subsidence,..).
B. Type of platform:
Space-borne(i.e., Airborne/helicopter-borne) Geophysics;
Ground (including car-borne) Geophysics;
Borehole Geophysics;
Ship-borne (marine) Geophysics.
C. Origin of the physical fields measured at different platforms:
Active fields: These fields are artificially generated by man-made
sources like dynamites, AC/DC Electric sources,
vibrators, gamma-ray,...
Passive fields:- these fields are originated naturally deep in the
earth's interior due to mechanical, thermal, gravitational,
electrical, magnetic or other natural phenomena.
D. Nature of the physical fields:
i. Magnetics; ii Electrical/EM; iii. Gravity; iv. Seismic/ Seismology;
v) Radioactive; vi. Geo-thermics.
These methods have their own distinct physical and mathematical
principles, as well as data acquisition, processing and interpretation
techniques.
Magnetic Method
(Magnetometry)
 1. Magnetic method of prospecting
Essence of the method & its applications
 In modern exploration practices, magnetic method is
considered as a comprehensive survey tool due to its
simplicity for field operation, rapid coverage (low
cost), and provision of critical geological information.
 More than 60% of the flight worldwide is carried out
by applying the magnetic method;
 Implementation of this method fundamentally seeks
the presence of contrast in the magnetic
properties, i.e. magnetization and/or magnetic
susceptibility of subsurface rocks and minerals.
APPLICATIONS
 Directly detecting iron deposits & determine their
physical parameters (h, w, strike & phy.
properties);
 Exploring sulfide, poly-metallic & ferrous/titano-ferrous
ore deposits (i.e. rich in Fe, Ti, Cr, Ni, Co);
 Exploring weak-/non-magnetic ore bodies, (like bauxites,
kimberlites, carbonatites, ..);
 Delineating lithologic boundaries and regional
structures, including structures favorable for coal,
oil and gas deposits;
 Delineating volcano-sedimentary belts & intrusive bodies
concealed by recent formations, and associated
tectonic structures (faults, fractures/ shear zones);
 Estimating elements of folded, faulted/sheared structures
within the metamorphic and/or volcano-
sedimentary terrain;
Contd..
Contd…
 Carrying out geotechnical investigations: study the
foundation conditions of sites where constructions of buildings,
dam reservoirs, tunnel routes, etc are taking place;
 Identifying favorable environment for groundwater
explorations: mapping of fracture systems in crystalline rocks and
bedrock aquifers under the alluvial cover;
 Petroleum exploration: ascertain thickness of the sedimentary
sections; mapping of major structures associated with the crystalline
basement underlining the sedimentary basin; ...;
Archeological investigations: Detect buried objects having
cultural and historical importance, i.e. sites where iron tools, bricks,
pottery, buried walls, pathways, entrances, fire-pits, etc. showing the
activities of mankind are found.
(823131E / 925015N)

At Km-1 the basement was

intercepted at 1757m altitude,
which is higher than the
surrounding.
 TOTAL MAGNETIC FIELD MAP
What can we observe from this map ?
Quantitative Magnetic Data Interpretation
Determinations of depth, thickness, strike length, mag. Properties,…
Wt-3
U.-basalt – 54 m
Sediment - 141 m
L. Basalt – 54
Basement – >
249m
(1375 m.asl ?)

BH 2-1
U.-basalt – 52 m
Sediment - 124 m
L. Basalt – 0
Basement – 176 m
(1426 m.asl)
 2. ELECTRICAL METHODS
Electrical methods are groups including techniques that
are based on the study of natural and artificial
electromagnetic fields injected into the ground.
In electrical prospecting objects are studied from the point
of view of Active or Passive conductors of
ELECTRICITY.

Electrical methods
Electro- Electro-
Electrical
Magneto
Radio-
Resistivity chemical magnetic
-telluric wave
Methods methods (EM) Ex.:
HLEM, GENIE, methods methods
Ex.: IP, SP, Max-Min, Ex.: Ex. : VLF-
Ex.: EP, VES MTS, TC,
PEM EM
 Factors Affecting the Electrical
Resistivity of Rocks
 The electrical resistivity of the mineral grains
constituting the rocks’ skeleton;
 The electrical property of solutions filling pore
spaces and fractures;
 Degree of chemical and physical weathering and
its depth continuation;
 Character and intensity of electrochemical
reactions;
 Structures and textures of rocks;
 Temperature and pressure
 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
Electrical sounding (vertical electrical profiling or electrical
drilling) is a process by which depth investigations are made
through successive resistivity measurements done with
regularly increasing electrode separations, while the center
of the configuration and its orientation are remaining fixed.

A A B B
1 a
2
2
1

Two layer earth b

’2
model
Two options AB/2

i) 1 >  2 (a)
Two layer VES
ii 1 < 2 (b) curve
Example 1.
Geo-electric section constructed using resistivity sounding (VES) results
V-1 V-4 V-5
V-2 V-3
Siltstone

Limestone 145 150

20
30
6000
4200
sandstone
50
1200
40
t
a semen
ic b
o r ph
2800 Met
am

2200
Example 2.
Resistivity profiling map (Kota area, Benishangul-Gumuz RS)
Example 3.
Resistivity profiling for archeological study
 RADIOACTIVE METHOD
(-spectrometry)
Radioactivity:- The spontaneous emission of high energy
atomic particles and EM radiations from one
natural breakdown of certain isotope of elements
or unstable elements such as U, Th & K into
another element.

Some peculiarities of the method:-

 It is a random process; the instant at which a particular
nuclear disintegration occurs is unpredictable.
 It is the closest to geochemical survey since it enables to
identify and quantify the apparent concentration from the
naturally occurring elements (K, U & Th).
 It has no depth penetration (d<0.5 m).
Applications
 Searching for uranium deposits;
 Exploration of non r/a mineral deposits which
genetically are associated with r/a elements (rare
metals, diamond pipes, phosphates, Ti places, coal,
shale, etc);
 Determination of absolute age of geological
formations;
 Environmental monitoring;
 Searching for R/a debris due to military activity, loss
in transport, loss of nuclear powered satellite
fragments, etc.
 Monitoring atmospheric radon;
 Studying the overuse of fertilizers that may pollute
subsurface aquifer;
Implicit assumptions made while using the -ray
Spectrometry for geological mapping purposes
Geophysical survey-Seismic refraction
Applications
The primary applications of seismic refraction are for
determining depth to bedrock and bedrock structure
To assess structural disruptions of mineral bearing
sediments.
investigation of engineering sites

study landslides and erosion problems

select sand, gravel and quarry site
Geophysical survey-Seismic refraction
Applications
To study alluvial mineral deposits and locate zones of
fissures and fractures where mineralization can occur.
the correction of weathering effect for seismic reflection
surveys
to provide aid in assessing rock quality.

to map depth of landfills, thickness of overburden and

the topography of groundwater.
Geophysical survey-Seismic refraction
Example-yebegochgat survey
 6. Underground Sampling Methods

Pitting and trenching

Pits and trenches : a quick and cheap ways of obtaining

 lithological

 structural

 assay informations in areas of shallow cover

Pitting:

Employed to test – shallow

- extensive
- flat lying bodies of mineralization

Advantage: pits provide large volume of samples (important: to overcome problems

of variable grade distribution

Trenching:

Employed: to expose steeply dipping bed rock buried below a shallow overburden

 Dug across the strike of lithologies or mineralized zone being tested

Traditional method: hand dug pits and trenches

Modern method: bulldozer, excavator, back-hoe

Channel Sampling Survey

 Channel samples are collected from deep pits, mineralized outcrop and
trench of outlined potential target area before drilling

 1-2kg channel samples are collected at equal meter interval from

walls and bottom pits and trenches after homogenization for laboratory
Analysis:
to examine the extent and grade distribution of a mineralized body
Pit channel sampling activity
Trench channel sampling activity
Drilling

 one of the most important exploration method

 Defines and locates economic mineralization

 ~ 40% exploration budget is allocated

 Types of drilling

 commonly used in mineral exploration are:

1. Auger drilling Increasing cost

2. Rotary percussion drilling
3. Diamond drilling

Selecting the right techniques is based on:

Speed, cost, required sample quality, sample volume, logistics

and environmental considerations
 Screw Auger
(post hole
digger)

Hand Auger

Simple drills for

collecting sub-surface
geochemical samples
 Standard Rotary Percussion Drilling

 a variety of blade or roller bit mounted on the end of rotating string

road cut end break the rock
 Percussion or hammer with chisel bit can be used to penetrate hard material

High-pressure air pressure pumped down to the center of the roads serves

a) to lubricate the cutting surface

b) to remove the broken rock (cutting) by blowing to the surface

 the cutting consist of broken, disoriented rock fragments from silt size (rock
flour) to chips up to 3cm diameter
 In standard rotary drilling the broken rock riches to the surface along the
narrow space between the drill roads and side of the hole
(Risk of contamination is high)

 all the cuttings rich to the surface from the hole are collected in large container
called a CYCLONE (designed to collect fine material protecting from blow away
 Reverse Circulation (RC) Drilling

 It is with dual tube RC drilling

 compressed air passes down to the drill bit along the annular space between
the inner tube outer drill roads

 the compressed air carries the cuttings up the center of the road (less risk of
contamination from the side of the hole)

 RC drilling has great value in Mineral exploration especially in drilling gold

prospect

Take care!!!! Small level of contamination can produce misleading result

During drilling the driller must make sure that

1. The hole is sealed at its collar

2. The driller continues to apply high pressure in 1 to 2m sampling interval
3. All the cuttings pass in to cyclone
 Geological logging

Before drilling the geologist must make onsite decision

1. Hole depth
2. Hole position

Sample size: from silt size up to angular chips a few centimeter across

Before description

3. Wash the sample

4. Sieve with coarse mesh

5. Observe coarser samples

Logging must include columns of

Sample weight (to know loss or gain of material) (1m interval sample 25-30kg)
 % of size fraction
Mineralogy
Grain size
Color
Texture
Sulphide present
Alteration types present
Structures observed
Degree of oxidation etc.
Rock name
Display
 The samples must be kept in segmented plastic box
Sampling for laboratory analysis

Two ways:

1. Pipe sampling

Plastic pipe: 80 cm long and 6cm diameter

3 pipe sample along the long axis of the samples

2 pipe sample diagonal
Total 5 pipe sample

2. Splitting : Riffler splitter

Wagon Drilling
Banka Drilling

For soft material = drills shallow depth

Two types : 1. 4 inch size (for normal exploration and penetrates up to 40m)
2. 6 inch size for placer gold exploration
 Diamond Drilling
An annular impregnated cutting tool (called a bit): mounted on the end of
a rotating string of a hollow steel rod

Cuts a solid cylinder of rock (core) which passes up inside the drill rods as the
Bit advances.

The bit is lubricated with water (or sometimes a special water/ mud mixture) which
Is pumped to the cutting face down inside of the rods, before returning to the
Surface between the rods and side of the hole.

At surface, the return water is collected in a pit and recirculated at the drill bit.

Size range (Cost varies depending on size and depth)

Greater size: more samples size

AQ1=27mm
BQ1=36.5mm Larger diameter for shallow depth and unconsolidated
NQ= 47.6mm material (PQ and HQ)
HQ=63.5mm Usually for NQ for hard rock and greater depth with
PQ=85mm core recovery
Core barrels normally hold up to 6m of core depending on the size of the drill rig
  is conducted in two phases:

1) Target generation
2) Target drilling exploration stages

Primary aim of stage-1

 Geological understanding of the prospect

 Qualitative assessment of the potential ore

The second stage (phase) of drilling is conducted when there is

great probability for the presence of an ore body

Drilling can be conducted : Vertical

 Some definitions

The Azimuth (an angle of hole) of a non-vertical hole: is the horizontal

direction in which is drilled and usually expressed as a compass bearing

The Inclination of a hole is that the angle it makes with the horizontal and
is measured in the vertical plane

Inclination = -ve (drilling is below horizontal)

+Ve (drilling is above horizontal)

The Drill section is the vertical plane in which a hole is drilled

Deviation ; is the amount by which a hole swings away from the initial azimuth and
Inclination during the course of drilling

Core Axis (CA); Sometimes called Long Core Axis (LCA) is the imaginary line
Running along the center of the cylindrical drill core

Core Recovery (%): Length of core recovered

X 100
Length of drilled depth

> 100 % Core gain

< 100% Core loss
Car mounted
Chain type
Core sample splitting
Has Great Advantage for

- To obtain Geological information

- To Obtain structural information
- To examine the visible nature the ore minerals Vs
the gangue minerals
- To examine the visible nature different alteration minerals
- Less contamination risk of the hard rock
INTRODUCTION
Raw Materials of Mining
Minerals
Metals
Ores
Composition of the Earths Crust
Oxygen+Si (74.6%)
Oxygen, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg, K (over 99%)
Industrially important metals Fe, Al, Mg (over 2%)
Other useful metals < 0.1 %
Non-ferrous base metal (Cu) : 0.0055%

145
The forms of metal in the earth’s crust and sea bed
depend on:
Their reactivity with their environment, particularly
with O2, S2, CO2

Very few metals are found in native form.

Most of them are found in compound form.

146
Au and Pt  Native (metallic form)
Ag, Cu, Hg  Native , Sulphides,
Chlorides, Carbonates forms.
More reactive metals are found in the form of
compounds.
e.i. Oxides and silicates of Al, Be;
e.i. Oxides and sulphides of Fe

147
Minerals : Natural inorganic substances
possessing definite chemical compositions and atomic
structures

IMPORTANT : If the minerals containing the

important metals were uniformly distributed
throughout the earth, they would be so thinly
dispersed that their economic extraction would be
impossible.

148
The occurrence of minerals in nature is regulated by
geological conditions. Due to the action of :
Precipitation
Weathering
Alluvial movements
Crystallisation
mineral deposits are found in sufficient concentrations to
enable the metals to be profitably recovered.

149
 Ore is a natural aggregation of minerals from which a
metallic or non-metallic compound can be recovered
with profit.
Ores can be classified according to
Nature of the valuable mineral
By the nature of their gangues
According to the use of the mineral

150
 Nature of the valuable mineral:
1. Native ores  metals in elementary form
2. Sulphide ores  metals as sulphides form
3. Oxide ores  Metals as oxide form
4. Complex ores
 By the nature of their gangues
1. Calcareous or basic  Lime rich
2. Siliceous or acidic  Silica rich
 According to the use of the mineral
1. Metallic ore
2. Non-metallic ore

151
Most ores are mixtures of extractable minerals and
gangue (extraneous rocky material)

Native metals can be used directly. Others have to be

beneficiated (concentrated) and treated
metallurgically.

152
GRADE (metal content)
 Grade (or assay) is the percentage of element or
compound of marketable end product.
- Grade is a measure of the quality of the ore or
concentrate.
For high grade ores: the valuable mineral assay is
expressed as % of metal.
 e.g. for iron ore, 50% Fe
 for copper ore, 3% Cu

153
For low grade ores: valuable mineral assay is expressed
as ppm (or g/ton);
 e.g. Gold ore : 5 g/ton Au, 5 ppm Au
Some metals are sold in oxide form; thus grade is
expressed in terms of oxide content.
 e.g. %WO3(Tungsten), %U3O8(Uranium), %B2O3(Borate),
%P2O5(Phosphate) ,%Cr2O3(Chromite)

154
Non-metallic minerals: grade is expressed as their
mineral percentage.
% CaF2 , %BaSO4

Diamond: grade is expressed as carad.

(1 carad= 0.2 g)

Coal: grade is expressed as ash % or calorific

value(kcal/kg)

155
IMPORTANT : The minimum metal grade (assay)
required for a deposit to qualify as an ore varies
from metal to metal and from time to time.
e.g. Non-ferrous ores may contain as little as 1%
metal and often less.
Gold may be recovered profitably in ores
containing only 5 ppm.
Iron ores containing <15% Fe are regarded as
low grade.

156
The deposit will be economic to work if:

Contained value/ton > (total processing costs + losses +

other costs)/t

157
 The factors which control the value and
suitability of a mineral deposit as sources of
metal ore:
1. Location and size of the deposit (Topography, availibility
of space, environmental impact)
2. Grade and texture (form and concentration of metal, the
nature of gangue, secondary values, uniformity of the ore body,
texture, association, degree of of dissemination)
3. Mining cost (Alluvial mining: cheapest ; high tonnage open
pit and block caving underground: medium cost ; underground
vein type deposit : most expensive.)
4. Financial aspects (required invesment, available capital
taxes, royality payments)
5. Proximity to fuel, power and water supplies
6. Demand for and value of the metal (metal price)

158
 Value of a deposit
Calculate the theoritical value of a deposit which
contains 1% Cu and 0.015% Mo.
- Price of copper metal : £ 980 / t
- Price of Mo metal :£ 15 / kg
Value of 1 ton ore :
- 1 ton ore gives 10 kg Cu..........£ 9.80
- 1 ton ore gives 0.15 kg Mo.......£ 2.25
- Total value of 1 ton of ore .......£ 12.05

The deposit will be economic to work , if , total

processing costs + losses + other costs /t < £ 12.05
159
  As mined, run-of-mine (r.o.m.) ore consists of
valuable mineral and gangue.
 Mineral processing prepares the ore for extraction of
valuable metal.

Mineral processing is a physical process for

separating the valuable minerals from the gangue.

Mining →Mineral Processing→Metallurgy

160
IMPORTANT: Mineral processing doesn’t destroy the
chemical and physical identity of the mineral

Mineral processing= ore dressing = Beneficiation

 Aufbereitung (German)
Preparation des minerais (French)
Cevher zenginleştirme (hazırlama)

161
OBJECTIVES OF MINERAL PROCESSING
2 Fold:
1. Technical
2. Economical

3. Technical objective:
To bring the end (marketable)product or concentrate
into the technical conditions required by the
consumer

162
Requirements (specifications):

Particle size

Grade

Mineral form
Moisture content

Impurities

163
ECONOMICAL OBJECTIVES

To keep the loss of valuable minerals as low as possible

To keep the cost of treatment as low as possible

164
BENEFITS OF MINERAL PROCESSING
1. Saving freight
2. Reduced losses of metal at the smelter because
of reduction in amount of metal-bearing slag
3. Reduction in metal smelting costs(less tonnage)
4. Reduction in capital cost of smelter
(simplification of the process due to the
separation of harmful elements)
5. Increase in workable amount of mineral
resources

165
Treatment of 1 ton of copper ore by pyrometallurgical
process consumes 1500-2000 kWh of electricity.
To upgrade a copper ore from 1% to 25% metal would use
20-50 kWh /ton energy (small energy in physical
methods).
The reduction in wt of ore around 25 :1 by concentration
lowers smelter energy consumption to around 60-80 kWh
in relation to the wt of mined ore.
In order to produce metals , the ore must be broken down
(destroyed ) by the action of
- heat ---pyrometallurgy
- solvent---hydrometallurgy
- electricity--- electrometallurgy
All these methods consume large quantities of energy.

166
 Introduction to Mineral Dressing

Mineral dressing (= Ore beneficiation) The first process most ores

undergo after they leave the mine is mineral dressing (processing), also
called ore preparation, milling, and ore dressing or ore beneficiation.

Ore dressing is a process of mechanically separating the grains of ore

minerals from the gangue minerals, to produce a concentrate (enriched
portion) containing most of the ore minerals and a tailing (discard)
containing the bulk of the gangue minerals.
Since most ore minerals are usually finely disseminated and intimately
associated with gangue minerals, the various minerals must be broken
apart (freed) or “liberated ” before they can be collected in separate
products.

Therefore, the first part in any ore dressing process will involve the crushing
and grinding (which is also known by a common name called “comminution
”) of the ore to a point where each mineral grain is practically free.
Mining Methods : Open pit and Underground
 Feasibility study for Mining of an economic Mineral Deposit

Feasibility study: is an assessment of the practicality of the proposed

project

Aims evaluates:
 the strength and weakness of the existing or proposed project
 opportunities threats present in the normal environment
 the resources required to carry out through
 ultimately the prospects for success

A well designed feasibility study should provide:

 a historical background of the project
 a description of products of service
 accounting statement
 details of operation and management, marketing research and policies.
financial data, legal requirements and tax obligations
During feasibility study of economical mineral deposit for mining

Some of the required Professionals

 Senior Exploration Geologist

 GIS Expert
 Surveyor
 Engineering geologist
Mining Engineer
 Mineral processing Engineer
 Mineral Economist
 Environmental Social management expert
Contents:

• General Information
• Regional and Local Geology
• Exploration result
• Total amount of the resource estimated including by products
• Surveying data
• Mining plant design and location map
• Geotechnical data
• Mining method, mining design with annual estimated production rate
• Required logistics and human resource for mining
• Selected mineral processing method
• Economical evaluation report
• Environmental and social management plan report