NAME:…………………………………..………………… Class:…………..

……………………
DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL
FIRSTTERM E-LEARNING NOTES
JS 3 (BASIC 9)
SUBJECT: PRE-VOCATIONAL (AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE)
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPIC
1. Revision/Packaging Criteria:(a) Packaging Criteria(i) Nature of the produce- liquid or solid and shape (ii) Bulkiness (size), (iii) Live or frozen or dry stock, (iv) Distance to market
(b)Example of Packaging items (Types of packaging materials in agriculture) –Boxes, Drum/Barrels, Cages, Polythene, Trays e.t.c
2. Pricing and Advertising: (a) Definition of pricing (b) Price determinants-(i) cost of production (ii) quality of produce (iii) quantity of produce (iv). forces of demand and supply (v)
market price (vi) seasonal produce.
3. Records and Book keeping: (a) Definition and use of farm records (b) Uses of farm records; to monitor the progress of the business
4. Records and Book Keeping: (c)Types and uses of farm records-(i) farm diary, (ii) farm inventory, (iii) input records, (iv) production records, (v) consumption records, (vi) sales records,
(vii) profit and loss account
5. Records and Book Keeping: (d) Computer Aided farm record and its benefits (e) Definition of book keeping- (i) keeping account of financial activity of enterprise
6. Records and Book Keeping: (f) Source documents; (i) Sales invoice (ii) Purchase invoice (iii) Returns inwards (iv).Returns outward
7. Mid- term Break
8. Records and Book Keeping: (g) Journal preparation; Sales journal, Purchase journal etc
9. Agriculture in Stock exchange: (a) Meaning of stock; buying and selling of goods and services available now and in the future(b) People involved in stock exchange; buyers, sellers,
buyers and sellers, farmers’ agents.(c)Importance of stock exchange in agriculture; encourages investment in agriculture, encourages contract farming.
10. Export Promotion in Agriculture: Meaning of export promotion; Encouraging sale of Nigerian produce in other countries; Examples of Nigerian export produce: Cocoa, palm produce,
Hides& skin, cassava crop, Groundnut, pepper etc. Benefits of export promotion: Attracts foreign money (exchange), Serves as additional market out to farmers to earn income etc
11.Revision
11-12.Examination
WEEK 1

REVISION OF LAST TERM WORK/PACKAGING CRITERIA.

Topic 1: Packaging and Packaging Criteria.

DEFINITION OF PACKAGING
Packaging: This is the practice of putting agricultural produce in small containers.
This is the process of enclosing farm produce in some convenient containers and
packs for easy transportation.
Packaging is a system whereby goods are packed, wrapped or put inside containers,
weighed and priced before they are arranged on the shelves in a store.
The role of packaging is central because it is the first thing that a consumer or
customer sees and decides if he/she will buy or not.
The product appearance finalises the decision of procuring or not. Packaging is
commonly called ‘the silent salesman’ because it constantly informs customers of
the quality of products, which he/she is going to buy and consume.
PURPOSE / IMPORTANCE OF PACKAGING
The role of packaging in the marketing has become quite significant as it is one of the
ways companies make consumers notice their products. Common uses of packaging
include:

1.Protection of products.
2.Promotion.
3.Longer shelf-life.
4.Easy handling.
5.Reduction of risk.
6. Source of information.
7.For tracking and tracing.
8.It can be used to differentiate between one
product from the other.
Other Importance of Packaging Items.
Pre-packing draws attention of the customer to
the goods.
It prevents imitation of such items.
It saves customers’ time.
Customers also feel satisfied when buying pre-
packaged goods because the correct weight and
cleanliness of the goods have been assured.
Packaging prevents wastage.
Packaging prevents pests’ infestation.
Packaging prevents contamination.
CRITERIA FOR PACKAGING
Packing criteria include the following:
1. Availability of the material.
2. Cost.
3. Consumer.
4. The shape of the produce.
5. Nature of the produce i.e. liquid or solid.
6. Bulkiness (size) of the produce.
7. Live, frozen or dry stock.
8. Distance to market.
9. Transportation system.
10.Keeping quality of the produce.
11.Storage facilities.
12. Standard weight and measures.
13. Financial factors (cost).
14. Legal issue.
Examples of Packaging Items/materials.
1. Trays
2. Cans.
3. Bottles.
4. Jute bags.
5. Silos.
6. Earthen wares.
7. Sachets.
8. Jug/Gourd.
9. Boxes.
10. Drum.
11. Barrels
12. Cages.
Examples of Packaging Items/materials.
13. Pots.
14. Metal cans.
15. Glass bottles.
16. Plastic bottles.
17. Jars.
18. Collapsible tubes.
19. Plastic tubes.
20. Paper board cartons and
21. Flexible plastic or paper bags.
ASIGNMENT
1.Write short notes on the following packaging
materials:
i. Leaves. ii. Fibres (baskets and jute sacks). iii.
Woods (wooden boxes, trays and crates). Iv.
Earthen wares (pots). V. Papers. Vi. Paper board.
Vii. Leather. Viii. Plastics. Ix. Metal. X. steel and
xi. Aluminum.
1.Mention two advantages and disadvantages of
using glass as a packaging material.
2.State three importance of packaging.
WEEK: 2
Topic: Pricing and Advertising
Definition of pricing.
Price - This refers to the money charged for the product or service.
It also means everything that a customer has to give in order to acquire
a product or service.
It is the amount of money that is offered or asked for when something
is bought or sold.
Pricing - This is the process of determining what a company will
receive in exchange for its products. It is the placing of price on a
particular farm produce that will suit the customers and fetch higher
income to the farmer.
Pricing can also be defined as the process you need to go through to
figure out what price to attach to a given product.
The primary function of pricing is to specify how much money you will
receive in exchange for your products.
Price Determinants
1. Cost of production.
2. Government policies.
3. Forces of demand and supply.
4. Market sentiments.
5. Quality of produce.
6. Quantity of produce.
7. Seasonal produce.
8. Buyers’ perception.
PRICING OBJECTIVES
1. Profit maximisation.
2. Partial cost-recovery.
3. Quantity maximisation.
4. Statuesque.
5. Survival.
6. Quality leadership.
7. Revenue maximisation.
PRICING STRATEGY.
The strategy includes:
i. Cost-plus pricing.
ii. Competitive pricing.
iii. Penetration pricing.
iv. Psychological pricing.
v. Price skimming.
vi. Promotional pricing.
vii. Dynamic pricing.
Advertising
Advertising means calling the attention of members of the
public (audience) to a product, service or an idea in order to
induce them to buy. This is a form of communication relayed
from companies to inform the public about the existence of a
product in order to influence and persuade an audience to
buy their products.
Advertising is also a means by which a farmer tells the would-
be consumers about the existence of a product, the quality,
the uses and the price of such produce.
Advertising
Advertising can either be informative or persuasive or
have both elements.
Four elements are normally distinguished:
1. i. Getting the right product to the market.
2. ii. Selling the product at the right price.
3. iii. Ensuring that the promotion is right—that is,
advertising and marketing for the product.
4. iv. Ensuring that the product is distributed to the
most convenient place for customers to buy it.
FEATURES OF ADVERTISING
1. It must arrest attention.
2. It must convince the prospective buyers to
buy.
3. It should create a permanent, good
impression of the commodity in the minds of
the buyers.
4. It should be presented in a manner that
should be interesting to see, read or hear.
5. The message should be clear, concise and
Importance Of Advertising.
1. It helps in increasing sale.
2. It creates awareness in people.
3. It can be used to create brand
awareness in general public and
make a business more popular.
4. It directly boost sales of the brand.
Classwork/Test.
1. The amount of money that is offered or asked for when a bag of rice
is bought or sold is (a) pricing (b) price (c) price determination (d)
buyer.
2. The means by which a farmer tells the would-be consumers about
the existence of a product, the quality and the price of such produce is
called (a) pricing (b) advertising (c) price (d) consumer.
3. The buying and selling of farm produce through the registration of
price that are paid by buyer and collected by sellers (a) price (b)
advertising (c) pricing (d) price determination.
4. The following are price determinants except (a) price determination
(b) Quality of produce.
(c) Quantity of produce (d) Market price.
ASSIGNMENT
1. List nine types of advertising techniques.
a. Write short note on each of the type of advertising
techniques.
b. State two advantages and disadvantages in each of the type
of advertising techniques.
2. Mention five roles of advertising.
3. Answer the text-book multiple choice questions in chapter
one (pages 9 – 10).
4. Answer and fill in the gaps (questions) in page 23.
5. Answer the work-book questions in chapter one two (pages
1 - 2, and 3 – 4).
WEEK: 3
Topic: Records and Book keeping.

MEANING OF FARM RECORDS

A record is the documentation of
something that has already been
happened.
Farm records are written documents
showing major activities going on in the
farming business.
IMPORTANCE/USES OF FARM RECORDS.
1. It enables the farmer to detect fraudulent practices on the farm.
2. It enables the farmer to know whether he is running the farm at
profit or loss.
3. It helps the farmer to monitor the changes in prices of produce
bought or sold.
4. For taking management decision.
5. It shows the financial position of the farm.
6. To determine thpswaqne actual worth of the farm.
7. For procurement of loans.
8. It can be used for comparing the management efficiency over
time.
9. Farm records provide up-to-date data to facilitate effective farm
planning and budgeting.
10. It makes it possible to determine the annual tax of the farm.
AGRICULTURE JS 3 (BASIC 9) Time: 10 minutes. Instruction: Answer all questions in this section.

Objective Test: Choose the correct option from a---d).

1. The wrapping of goods is called (a) storage (b) sorting (c) grooming (d) packaging.

2. Packaging prevents _____ of goods (a) selling (b) distribution (c) spoilage (d) identification.

3. The following are pricing strategies EXCEPT (a) market sentiments (b) penetrating pricing (c) dynamic pricing psychological pricing (d)

cost-plus pricing.

4. Dairy products are best stored in (a) cage (b) barn (c) refrigerator (d) crate.

5. Items packed makes _____easy (a) transportation (b) contamination (c) infection (d) assimilation.

6. The collective programmes put in place by a country to help organizations sell their produce abroad are known as _____ promotion (a)

business (b) export (c) cooperative (d) finance.

7. One of the following goods can be packed in basket (a) honey (b) juice (c) Kola (d) oil.

8. Maize can be stored in (a) silo (b) basket (c) crate (d) net.

9. Criteria to consider in packaging include the following EXCEPT (a) transportation (b) bulkiness (c) distance (d) government policies.
Objective Test: Choose the correct option from a---d).

11. Which of these is not a purpose for packaging? (a) Easy handling (b) Protection of products (c) Promotion (d) Bulkiness.

12. The amount of money paid for goods and services is called (a) pricing ( b ) price ( c ) negotiation (d) distribution.

13. Someone who buys goods is also called (a) producer (b) seller (c) consumer (d) manufacturer.

14. The activities that create awareness for goods by sellers is (a) storage (b) advertising (c) packaging (d) distribution.

15. The following are price determinants EXCEPT (a) price determination (b) quality of produce (c) cost of production (d) taxation.

16. The record that shows the list of all the items in the farm is (a) purchase record (b) sales record (c) labour record (d) inventory record.

17. The record that shows various items used in production of a good is called (a) sales record (b) input record (c) yield record (d) buyer

record.

18. The record that shows daily activities on the farm is (a) inventory record (b) farm diary (c) sales record (d) consumption record

19. Registration of price of an item is termed (a) register (b) pricing (c) buying (d) selling.

20. The group of people involved in the stock exchange markets is as follows EXCEPT (a) jobbers (b) speculators (c) workers (d) investors.
WEEK: 4
Topic: Records and Book keeping
Types and uses of farm records
Farm records include:
1. Farm diary.
2. Farm inventory.
3. Input records.
4. Production records.
5. Consumption records.
6. Sales records.
7. Payroll or Labour record.
WEEK: 5
Topic: Records and Book Keeping

Computer Aided farm records and its benefits

These are computer software programs that can record basic income
and expense data for farmers, with quick summary and ability to
prepare variety of financial reports.
In a farm business, some basic reports are needed. The key ones are:
1. Transaction journal.
2. Depreciation schedule.
3. Employee reports(pay checks, withholdings, payment of employee
tax etc)
4. Information returns.
5. Balance sheet.
6. Income statement.
What is available to keep computerized farm
records?
Farmers, who need accurate, complete financial
statements and analysis should consider using some
form of computer record system such as:
1.Simple cash system: Quicken
2.General cash/Accrual accounting system:
QuickBooks, Dac Easy, Peachtree
3.Farm Cash/accrual accounting system: PCMars,
Transactions plus (TA+) by FBS systems, Red Wing
4. Add-ons for analysis: Spreadsheet, FINPACK,
Which system is best for your farm business?
No one can predict which program is best. The
following may help in the decision:
A.Examine farm specific programs if you:
1.Need complete, well documented financial
statement,
2.Have, or are planning on amount of debt,
3.Have many employees,
4.Have someone who has some knowledge of
accounting
5.Foresee a need for more extensive records in the
future
Examine cash-based or generic programs,
eg Quicken, if you:
1.Keep records primarily for tax purpose,
2.Prefer to use spreadsheet, FINPACK,
AFRA or an accountant to generate and
analyse financial statements
3.Have few employees
4.Can get needed production elsewhere
5.Have little knowledge of computer
Benefits of Computer Aided Records
1. There is easy of entry of data.
2. It promotes increased accuracy of information.
3. It allows cheque to be written with computer as data are entered.
4. It allows separation of data into enterprise group.
5. It is less capital intensive.
6. Reconciliation of computer account with bank statement is easy.
7. Useful reports can be generated for management to make decisions.
8. Greater flexibility of use of information.
9. It can be used to monitor farm financial progress.
10. It can be operated anytime irrespective of location.
11. It allow for easy back up and restoration of records.
12. More timely information can be produced.
13. It is faster and efficient in processing information.
14. It allows for safe back-up of records and proper storage in case of fire or theft.
15. It is an efficient way to keep financial records, which requires less storage space.
  
Disadvantages of computer aided records
1. Power failure, computer viruses and hackers are
major problem of using computerized systems.
2. There’s constant threat of computer fraud or
computer damage due to virus.
3. Since computer has no judgement of its own it
does not pickup error as human being does.
4.Data can be lost, because of hardware and
software damage.
5.There can be lost or change of data due to fraud or
embezzlement.
Meaning of Book-keeping
Book keeping is the records of what is bought, sold, owned
and owed, what money comes in, what goes out and what is
left.
Book-keeping is the art of recording business transaction in a
regular and systematic manner, such that the record would
be in a permanent form for the purpose of:
i. Providing a means by which an enterprise can be
conducted in an orderly manner,
ii. Providing a basis for recording and reference at any point
in time,
iii. To show at the end of a financial year whether the
business has recorded any profit or loss or break even.
Book-keeping Ethics
1. Accurate keeping of records.
2. Do away with all cancellation of items as
much as possible.
3. Keep all records available safe and tidy.
4. Make information available as at when
needed.
5. Promises to pay at a later date for the goods
purchased must be kept as well as the
conditions of transaction.
WEEK: 6
Topic: Records and Book Keeping.
Bookkeeping is the recording of all financial
transactions undertaken by an individual or
organisations.
It is the recording of day-to-day basis of the financial
transactions and information pertaining to a business.
Transactions include sales, purchases, income and
payments made by an individual or organisation. Each
transaction has to be recorded in the daybooks. The
daybooks consist of purchases, sales, receipts and
payments.
The two major systems used in bookkeeping by businesses
and other organisation includes:
1.Single-entry system- This is a method of bookkeeping
which rely on a one sided accounting entry to maintain
financial information.
It is commonly used for businesses with very little or
minimal transaction. Single-entry system is often referred
to as simple, practical and informal way of recording.
It uses only income and expenses accounts, recorded
primarily in revenue and expenses journal. An example of
single entry is source document.
2. Double-entry system: This requires posting each
transaction twice, using debits and credits.
Source documents: These are documents which
provide original or first-hand information used in
preparing accounts.
This is a written document that provides details of a
transaction and evidence that the transaction has
taken place. It is the original source of information
that provides documentation (proof) that a transaction
such as buying or selling has occurred.
These are documents in which original business
transactions are first recorded before been transferred
into subsidiary books of account. They serve as
documentary evidence for cash and credit
transactions.
Examples of source documents are:
1.Sales invoice.
2.Purchase invoice.
3.Returns inwards.
4.Returns outwards.
5.Credit notes or credit memo for a customer
refund.
6.Debit notes.
7.Computer-generated receipt/cash receipt.
8.Vouchers.
SALE INVOICE: An invoice is normally issued by sellers to
buyers when goods or services are sold on credit, that is,
when cash is not paid immediately. This document is sent
to request payment for monies owed, goods/services that
were delivered or rendered. It is usually issued by the
seller to the buyer. It informs the buyers of how much is to
be paid for the goods/services supplied.
This will contain a list of goods sent, with prices as well as
the date of dispatch. This document is called an invoice.
Invoice: This document is usually issued by the seller to the buyer
immediately goods are dispatch or services rendered on credit. It shows the
date of sale, description of goods bought or sold, quantity, unit price, total
cost.
RETURN INWARD: When goods are
returned by a customer or there is a
dispute concerning goods, an allowance is
made by the firm. To effect this allowance
in the customer’s account, a credit note
will be sent to him indicating that his
account has been credited by the amount
of the allowance. This will reduce the
amount the customer owes the supplier.
Returns Inward Day Book:
This is also known as sales return book or
Returns inward Journal. It is used for
recording the particulars of all goods
returned by customers and the allowance
granted to them. The source document for
returns inwards journals is the credit note
prepared by the seller who is accepting the
goods returned.
RETURN OUTWARDS: This is when you have sold something
and you are taken it back due the following reasons:
i.they are defective/faulty.
ii.they are of a wrong specification, type, quality, size,
colour,etc.
iii.damaged packed cases, empty bottles or containers.
iv.the customer has bought more than necessary.
When goods are returned to a supplier, a document called a
debit note is sent to him, stating the amount of allowance to
which the firm is entitled. This note will cover any allowance
due before the goods bought were deficient in some ways.
The closing balance on the return outward journal is credited
to the purchases journal and the transfer entries will be
effected by debiting individual’s suppliers account.
Returns Outward Day Book:
This day book is also called Returns outward Journal or purchases return book.
It is used for recording all goods returned to the sellers and allowances
granted by them. Entries are made from the credits notes received from the
seller. The total amount of the returns and allowances for a period are
credited to the returns outwards account in one figure in the ledger while
individual items are debited to the personal accounts sellers in the purchase
ledger.
Example:
The following returns were made to sellers on the dates shown. Record them
in the returns outwards journal.
Oct. 5Returned 1 carbon of biscuit at N250 to B. Ekpe, Credit Note No. 02/13
Oct. 6Returned to R. Igwe Note No. 02/44 N500
Oct. 8Received a note from Obongha & Sons on goods returned, Note No.27
N450.
CREDIT NOTE: A credit note is a source document which is used to
correct an overcharge in an involve. A credit note can also be issued
when fewer goods are supplied than the ones that are ordered, or
when customers return damaged goods. For a example, OJO bought
white live-rabbits worth #50,000 on credit from Mr Lucky, but Mr
Lucky wrote #60,000 on the invoice. Mr Lucky must prepare a credit
note of #10,000 to correct the error. This is a document that is sent
by the seller to the buyer to inform the latter (buyer) that his account
is credited in the former’s (seller’) books. It is issued by the seller when there
is a return inward by the buyer. This may occur if the goods supplied by the seller are
faulty, overcharged or not supplied according to specification in the Goods Received
Note. When the goods are received by the seller, he will credit the buyer’s account with
the amount of the goods returned by the buyer.
NOTE: A credit note is normally printed in red. This is to distinguish
it from an invoice.
DEBIT NOTE: note is a source document which is used to
correct an under-charge in an involve. For a example, OJO
bought broiler birds worth #70,000 on credit from Mr Lucky,
but Mr Lucky wrote #63,000 on the invoice by mistake. Mr
Lucky must prepare a debit note of #7,000 to correct the
error. Debit note is issued by the seller to the buyers to notify
him that the defected goods which he returned have been
received. This note will show the amount the seller owes the
buyer or in most cases that the amount shown in the note
has been debited to his (buyer) account.
Debit Note: This is sent by the seller to the buyer when there is an undercharge in
the original invoice. A debit note can also be sent when there is an omission or
return of goods.
RECEIPT FOR PAYMENT MADE: These are
written documents which serve as evidence
that money has been paid by the buyer to the
seller. This is got when business transactions
are made strictly on cash basis. To make the
transaction effective, the seller will issue a
document to the buyer. This document will
show among others:
(i)that the buyer of the goods has paid and
(ii)the quantity and quality the buyer
 Assignment:
1.State five (5) features of source documents.
2.Enumerate five (5) features of a sales invoice.
3.List three (3) importance of source documents.
4.What is the difference between return
inwards and return outwards?
5.Name the contents of a sales invoice.
6. Differentiate between credit note and
debit note.
WEEK: 8
Topic: Records and Book Keeping.
Sub-topic: Journal Preparation.
Journal: These are books in which information from source
documents is first recorded before being transferred to the
principal books of account. They are called day books
because they need to be updated daily. They are also called
books of original entry or books of prime entry.

A Journal is a document which contains the daily records of

business transactions. Each record in a journal is called an
entry. The journal is called a book of original entry because its
entries are transferred to a second book.
WEEK: 8
Topic: Records and Book Keeping.
Sub-topic: Journal Preparation.
The journal is another book of original entry where the details of
transactions other than normal cash transactions are first recorded.
Apart from being a book of original entry, it also records the transfer of
items between accounts and it facilitates the correction of errors that
may occur during the process of book-keeping.

Date Par Folio Invoice Amou

ticu No. nt
lars
Types of Journal
1. Sales journal
2. Purchase journal
3. Returned outward journal
4. Returned inward journal
TOPIC: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE
Science is defined as a knowledge obtained through
the observation and testing of factors which are
arranged in an orderly manner. It is the systematic
study of matter.
It involves the following steps/methods:
1. Diagnosis. 2. Hypothesis. 3. Experimenting.
4. Observation. 5. Recording and 6. Conclusion.
Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to
production. It increases efficiency, thus providing
higher outputs from minimum effort.
THE ROLES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIAN AGRICULTURE
1.Meteorology and climatology.
2.Tools and machinery.
3.Transportation.
4.Telecommunication.
5.Incubators and milking machines.
6.Soil fertility and management.
7.Pest and diseases control.
8.Harvesting, processing and storage.
9.Irrigation and drainage.
10.Plant and animal breeding.
ANIMAL IMROVEMENT
Meaning, Aims and Methods of Animal Improvement
Animal improvement refers the conscious (deliberate) attempts
made by man to improve and produce better breeds of farm
animals to satisfy human needs.
Animal improvement refers to the ways of developing and
breeding only those animals that shows the greatest merit under
consideration such as good feed conversion, growth rate, disease
resistance, meat quality, high milk yield, good body form and egg
size.
Animal improvement is the process whereby inherited superior
traits are transferred from one animal to the other of the same
species.
METHODS/PROCESSES OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT

Introduction.
Selection.
Breeding.
AIMS OF ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT
1. To produce animal with high yielding quality.
2. To produce animal with high feed conversion rate.
3. To produce animal with high growth rate and early maturity.
4. To produce animal that can adapt to various adverse climatic
conditions or withstand adverse environmental condition.
5. To produce animal that is resistant to disease and parasites.
6. To produce difference breeds of animals.
7. To produce animal that meets a particular purpose.
8. To increase the productivity of animals.
9. To improve the quality of farm animals.
INTRODUCTION: This is the physical transfer of animal(s) from their country
(place) of origin to another country (place). It is the bringing of animals which
are not native of a place but are known to have certain desirable characters
into a new place from the place of origin. Such animals are called exotic.
Introduction can be by physical importation either of the animals themselves
or their semen. The introduced (exotic) animals must be far better than the
local the breeds in many areas.
ADVANTAGES
1. It enhances greater productivity.
2. It leads to absence of pests and diseases.
3. Breeds may perform better and able to adapt to local conditions.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It may introduce new diseases and pests to the area.
2. There may be problem of adaptation.
3. The animals may not perform as expected.
4. Animals may be susceptible to local diseases and pests
SELECTION: This is the picking or choosing of one or more
animals from a group for the purpose of obtaining high
performance.
This is the method whereby a preferred animal is chosen
from a mixed population for breeding based on physical
features such as growth rate, colour, size, resistant to
disease and pest, fertility rate, milk quantity and quality
etc.
TYPES OF SELECTION
 Natural selection.
 Artificial selection.
NATURAL SELECTION: This is based on Charles Darwin’s theory, that
nature selects those traits/characteristics that are useful to it and
rejects those that are not useful. It was also stressed by Jean
Larmarck in his theory of ‘’Use and Dis-use.’’ This is the ability of
individual animal to weather (scale) through unfavourable
environmental forces to survive and reproduce. It operates on the
basis of choosing individuals which are able to withstand the
unfavourable environmental forces. Those that are unable to survive,
die off.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION: This selection is done by man using his
intelligence and influence to select and mate animals in order to
increase the number of animals. This involves man’s ability to discern
by observing differences in the animals available and to pick the
desirable ones.
 Under artificial selection, we have the following:
1.Mass Selection: This is the selection of a number of animals that are found to
perform better than the average of the entire group. This is selection based on
merits or performance.
2. Family Selection: This is the selection which is based on the overall
performance of the members of one’s family, that is, the parents and siblings
(offspring). This selection is based on the performance of the relatives or
family.
3. Progeny Selection: This selection is based on the records of the offspring
performance. The mother of the best performed is retained while others are
discarded (rejected).
4. Pedigree Selection: In this selection, animals are selected or rejected on the
basis of their ancestor’s performance (parental record).
5. Individual selection: In this type of selection, animals are picked simply on
the basis of individual performance within the group.
ADVANTAGES OF SELECTION
1. It reduces the spread of diseases and pest.
2. Animals with desirable traits are selected while others are rejected.
3. It ensures that only the best naturally available animals are selected.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It is tedious and time consuming.
2. It requires expertise and technical know-how.
3. It is expensive.
4. It brings about elimination of some desirable traits of some parent stock.
5. Selection is based on phenotypic features only.
6. No new desirable characteristics are introduced.
BREEDING: This is the mating of animals
of the same species to produce
offsprings with desirable qualities. It
refers to gene improvement by
transferring qualities or characters from
parents to offspring. Heritable qualities
are transferred from parents to their
offspring during breeding.
TYPES OF BREEDING
In-breeding: This involves the mating of more closely related
animals like mating of brothers and sisters, father and
daughter, son and mother, etc. Inbreeding produces offspring
with undesirable characteristics, inbred lines that can be used
for cross breeding and also leads to inbreeding depression.
Out Breeding: This is the mating of far-related (unrelated)
animals within the same breed. It is the mating of distant
relations of animals belonging to the species and breeds. For
example, second cousin with second cousin. This is the
opposite of in-breeding. It produces offspring with greater
vigour and productivity.
Cross Breeding: This involves the mating of unrelated breeds
of animals belonging to the same species. That is, animals
belonging to different breeds but of the same species. It is
the mating of proving quality animals of different breeds e.g.
N’dama x Muturu; Land race x Large white or Rhode Island
Red (female) x White leghorn (male).
Line Breeding: This is the mating of less closely related
animals but belonging to the same lineage. For example, half
brothers and half sisters. It is the mating of individuals that
are not more closely related. Line breeding is used to
consolidate some traits of the sire or dam. It helps breeders
to develop pure individuals without having much loss.
ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION
Artificial Mating/Insemination: This is the
introduction of male germ cell (spermatozoa)
into the female genital tract without the
normal natural servicing (mating) by the male.
It is the introduction of semen into the female
animals’ reproductive tract that is on heat
without the use of male animals.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Explain the term animal improvement
2. Why is animal improvement important to livestock breeders?
3. Write short notes on the following system of animal breeding
i. Mass selection
ii. Pedigree selection
iii. Cross breeding
4. Answer all agric questions in year 2018/2019 LASSWELL.
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. When different breeds of animals are mated, the process is known as (a) cross breeding (b) inbreeding (c) out breeding
(d) line breeding
2. Mating of animals with close genetic selectionship is known as (a)cross breeding (b) line breeding (c) inbreeding (d) out
breeding
3. The system of breeding that is practiced when N’dama cow are mated by Muturu bulls is (a) inbreeding (b) out crossing
(c) cross breeding (d) line breeding
4. Selection and hybridization are all methods of (a) insemination (b) grading (c) quarantine (d) improvement
5. Progeny selection involves selection of breeding stock on the basis of (a) merit of each animal (b) sire-dam relationship
(c) merit of the dam only (d) performance of offspring.
MARKET STRUCTURES
Concept of Market
In everyday speech, market refers to a fixed place where people meet to buy and sell
goods. For example, Opolo market, Swali market, Tombia market, etc. But in Economics,
however, market does not necessarily refer to a fixed place. It has a wider meaning.
It is defined as any arrangement, system or organization whereby buyers and sellers of
goods and services are brought into contact with one another for the purpose of
transacting business.
The means of contact could be through any type of communication systems such as
internet, phone, letter or telegraphic system or a fixed place like the regular market place.
Types of Market
Market could be classified based on the types of commodities bought and sold (i.e.
consumer goods market, labour market and capital and money market), or on the basis of
channel of distribution (resale and wholesale market), or the bases of prices.
Under this discussion, we shall look at the type of market on the basis of prices.
Types of Market (On the Basis of Prices).
Perfect Competition/Market
Imperfect Competition/Market
Perfect Competition/Market
A perfect market is a market structure in which prices are
determined by the forces of demand and supply. It is a market
without interference by the government or its agencies. It
should be noted that in the real world a perfect market does
not exist in its pure form. Example of near-perfect markets are
the stock exchange, world commodity markets such those of
cocoa, coffee, and wool.
Types of Market (On the Basis of Prices).
Features of a Perfect Market
 Homogeneous (identical) commodity and existence of close substitutes. E.g Beer.
 There are a large number of buyers and sellers, each of whom has no control over the
ruling price. No single person (Producer/seller) can influence price.
 Uniformity of prices. Each single competitor cannot influence price.
 Perfect knowledge of the market transactions available to everyone. All the buyers and
sellers must have perfect knowledge of market transactions.
 There must be free flow of information in the market.
 There must be free entry and free exit of buyers and sellers. There must be no restriction
of any kind.
 There must be no preferential treatment. All buyers must be treated equally.
 There must be no transport costs incurred.
 The goods must be portable. The goods must be easy to carry from place to place.
Advantages of Perfect Competition
1. There are large numbers of buyers and sellers.
2. Each producer/seller is a price taker.
3. There freedom of entry and exit of producers/sellers.
4. Normal profits are earned at equilibrium by firms in the industry. The firms
neither earn abnormal profits nor incur a loss.
5. There is no preferential treatment or discrimination against any customer.  
Disadvantages of Perfect Market
6. It leads to waste of resources.
7. Possibility of unemployment or underemployment of labour and others
factors.
8. Inadequate resources to embark on research.
Imperfect Competition/Market
An imperfect market is a market situation in which the forces of
demand and supply are not allowed to operate freely. There are
different degrees of regulations of the market forces. In practical
terms, it is imperfect competition that operates in most markets
Types of Imperfect Markets
 Monopolistic competition
 Oligopoly
 Duopoly
 Monopsony
 Oligopoly
 Monopoly
Monopolistic Competition
This is a market situation in which there are many producers or sellers producing or selling identical but
non-homogenous commodities.
Goods are non-homogenous because of the branding of the commodity. Examples include daily
newspapers from different publishing houses, producers of several bottled non-alcoholic drinks, etc.
Oligopoly
An Oligopolistic market is one in which there are few producers or sellers but many buyers.
Large capital requirement may limit the number of producers in the industry. Examples are network
owners like MTN, Glo Network, etc. Oligopoly is more competitive that monopoly but it is less
competitive than monopolistic competition
Duopoly
This is a market situation in which there are only two sellers or producers of a commodity but there are
many buyers.
Monopoly
Monopoly is a market situation in which a producer is the only seller of a particular good that has no
close substitute. By implication, a monopolist can charge whatever price it wants and consumers are left
with no choice than to purchase the product even at high prices.
Monopsony: A monopsonist is a single buyer.
A monopsony is market situation in which there is a single buyer but there are many buyers.
This is a market situation in which a single individual or a group of persons acting as a unit is
responsible for purchasing of a particular commodity, but there are many sellers. E.g. The
commodity boards are near-monopsonists.
Oligopsony
This is a market situation in which there are few buyers and many sellers of a commodity.
Features of Imperfect Market
 Heterogeneous commodity.
 There is only one or very few buyers and/or sellers.
 There is an imperfect knowledge of market transactions.
 There is no free entry into or exit from the market.
 Preferential treatment exists/ no uniform prices.
 There are transport costs involved in moving goods and factors of production.
 The goods may not be portable.
SOIL FERTILITY AND MANAGEMENT
Meaning Of Soil Fertility.
A fertile soil is a soil which contains all the soil nutrient
elements required by crops/plants. The nutrient must be in
adequate proportions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SOIL.
 Adequate humus.
 Good water holding capacity.
 Easily tilled (good workability).
 Essential elements available in required forms and amount.
METHODS OF SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT
(WAYS OF MAINTAINING SOIL FERTILITY)
1.Bush fallowing.
2.Crop rotation.
3.Cover cropping.
4.Mulching.
5.Organic manuring.
Fertilizer (Inorganic manures) application.
Bush Fallowing: This means to leave a piece of land
for about two to five years without cultivation.
Bush fallowing is the act of leaving a piece of land
uncultivated for a relatively short period before it is
cultivated again. This enables the land to regain its
fertility during the fallow period. The period could
be 2 to 5 years. The period of allowing the land to
rest in order to re –grow back to bush and rebuild
the use-up nutrients is called fallow period.
 Crop Rotation: This is the scientific process by which crops
are planted on a piece of land in an orderly sequence. It is
cropping system in which different crops are grown on the
same piece of land every year in a definite order or cycle.
Crop rotation can be also defined as the planting of
different types of crops on the same piece of land in a
definite sequence.
Crop rotation is planned in such a way as to restore
nutrients removed from the soil. It is necessary to include a
leguminous plant in the cycle.
Crop Rotation
YEAR PLOT 1 PLOT 2 PLOT 3 PLOT 4

YEAR1 CASSAVA MAIZE YAM COWPEA

YEAR 2 MAIZE YAM COWPEA CASSAVA
YEAR 3 YAM COWPEA CASSAVA MAIZE
YEAR 4 COWPEA CASSAVA MAIZE YAM
Principles guiding crop rotation system includes:
(a) Deep rooted crops like yam and cassava must not follow each other because they will asorb
nutrients from the same level or area in the soil. They should be followed by shallow- rooted crops
like rice, maize, etc.
(b) Shallow rooted crops like maize and rice should not follow one another because of the same
reason above.
(c) Crops belonging to the same family should not follow each other.
(d) There should be at least a legume in the rotation.
(e). Crops which can be affected by the same pests should not follow each other in the rotation.
(f). Crops which can be affected by the same diseases should not follow each other in the rotation.
(g). Crop rotation helps to control the growth of weeds.
(h). It also helps to control erosion.
(i). Nitrogen – taking crops like maize should be followed by nitrogen fixing crops like groundnut.
(j). A short period of fallow must be introduced into the rotation.
ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION
 It helps to maintain the fertility of the soil.
 helps in erosion control and prevents nutrient loss from the soil.
 Inclusion of legumes in the rotation helps to enrich the soil nutrient
with nitrates.
 It helps to maximize the use of soil.
 It makes continuous cropping possible for many years.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE PRACTICE OF CROP ROTATION.

Where population is high.
Where land is scarce.
Where the soil has exhausted its nutrients.
Where there is need to maintain soil fertility.
Where there is need to have different varieties of crops.
Cover cropping: This is the growing of
crops purposely to provide cover for the
soil surface and protect it from direct sun
and heavy rainfall. Crops such as melon,
cowpea, groundnut, sweet potato,
mucuna, pueraria, centrosema, etc are
used to cover the soil and suppress weeds.
Organic Manuring:This is the application of decaying
plant and animal materials (products) which
have been carefully prepared to improve the
soil fertility. There are three major types of
organic manuring:
(i) Green manure.
(ii) Farm yard manure.
 Green Manure: This involves the process of burying or ploughing fresh
growing plants in their vegetative (growing or tender) stage into the
soil. It also refers to the fresh leguminous plants and other fresh
growing plants being ploughed into the soil when they are still tender
so that the rate of decomposition can be fast. Examples of such
leguminous plants are sun hemp, peas, calapogonium, cowpea,
mucuna, pueraria, centrosema and grasses.
Farm yard Manure: This is the combination of animal wastes such as
animal dungs, feaces, urine, beddings or which have been allowed to
undergo series of decomposition before being used as manure. Before
applying the manure, it must be allowed to decompose (decay) fully
so as to avoid burning the roots of the crops.
Compost Manure: This is the type of manure formed as a result of the
rottening down of both plants and animals remains in heaps or pits before
the residue is applied to the soil. It is a type of manure that is prepared by
heaping both plant and animal materials in a definite order, and allowed to
decompose progressively under careful supervisions.
 Mulching: This is the practice of covering the soil surface with dry
grasses, crop residues, straw and sawdust.
Application of fertilizer (inorganic manure): Fertilizers are chemical
substances that are in the form of powders, granules, or crystals, which
are added to the soil to improve its fertility. Nutrients are divided into two,
namely: Macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients (trace elements).
Macro-nutrients: These are those elements needed by plants in large
quantities. Examples of macro-nutrients include calcium, nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium and sulphur.
While micro-nutrients are those elements needed by plants in small
quantities. They include zinc, copper, manganese, molybdenum, carbon,
iron, boron, cobalt and chlorine.
Note that iron is a trace element in plants but a major element in animals.
 Types of Fertilizers
1. Single or simple or straight fertilizer: This refers to a fertilizer that
contains only one of the major plant nutrients/elements required by
plants. They contain one primary elements such as nitrogen,
potassium and phosphorus.
Nitrogen fertilizers: The major function of Nitrogen is promotion of
vegetative growth.
Examples of Nitrogenous fertilizers include:
i. Ammonium sulphate.
ii.Ammonium nitrate.
iii.Sodium nitrate.
iv.Urea.
Phosphorus fertilizers: These are necessary for seeds and roots
production. Examples include:
i. Superphosphate.
ii.Ammonium phosphate.
iii.Rock phosphate.
Potassium fertilizers: These help plants to grow to maturity as
well as fruit production. Examples include:
iv.Muriate of potash (Potassium chloride).
v.Sulphate of potash.
vi.Potassium nitrate.
Compound or mixed or complex fertilizers: These are fertilizers that
contain two or more major primary nutrient elements such as
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium in the composition. The
nutrients are in ratios and the ratio refers to the proportion of the
major nutrients to one another. Examples are NPK 15:15:15, 20:20:20,
5:10:5.
METHODS OF FERTILIZERS / MANURES APPLICATION.
 Broadcasting.
 Top dressing.
 Ring method of application.
 Row application.
 Side dressing or application.
 Foliar application.
 Band placement.
Broadcasting: This is the spreading of fertilizer evenly (uniformly) over the soil
surface before ploughing or planting crops.
Top dressing: This is where fertilizer is applied around the base (surface) of well-
established plant within the reach of the roots of crops during the growing
stage.
Ring method of application: This is a method whereby a shallow trench or ring
or circle is dug round each crop for few centimetres away from the stem. The
fertilizer is applied in the ring.
Row application: This is where a fertilizer is applied in row few centimetres away
from the crop. This method can only be applied for crops that are planted in
rows or straight lines. The fertilizer can thus be drilled.
Side dressing or application: This is where small quantity of fertilizer is placed on
one or two sides of individual crop.
Foliar application: This is where soluble fertilizers
are applied as sprays on the leaves of crops. This is
used mainly on the aerial parts of vegetables.
Examples of fertilizers that can applied in this
method include Ammonium sulphate, etc.
Band placement: This method is used when the
plants are far away from one another. The fertilizer
is placed in bands or pockets made by the side of a
 PLANT NUTRIENTS
Plant foods are the nutrients or mineral elements
that a plant requires for growth, maintenance and
development. Soil minerals which is also referred to
as inorganic matter. Plants nutrients are divided
into two groups:
1.Macro nutrients
2.Micro nutrients.
MACRO NUTRIENTS/MAJOR/ESSENTIAL: These are the mineral salts required
in large amount and their deficiency can easily manifest on plants. They
include Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
They are also known as major elements.
MICRO NUTRIENTS OR MINOR OR TRACE ELEMENTS: They are the mineral
salts required in small quantity, and their deficiency does not easily manifest
but can manifest on the animals feeding on such plants.
Micro nutrients are also known as trace elements or minor elements. They
include carbon, iron, manganese, molybdenum, boron, zinc, cobalt, copper
and chlorine.
Oxygen and hydrogen can also be grouped as minor elements.
NB: Iron is a traced element in plants but of major elements in animals.
CLASS WORK

1. All the following are macro-nutrients except (A). Calcium. (B) Nitrogen. (C).
Potassium. (D). Phosphorus. (E). Zinc.
2. Those elements present in the soil required by plants in large quantities are
called (A). Micro-nutrients. (B). Macro-nutrients. (C). Zinc. (D). Copper. (E).
Iron.
3. All the following are micro-nutrients except (A).Manganese (B) Copper (C).
Molybdenum. (D).Sulphur. (E). Zinc.
4. Factors of soil formation include the following except (A). Climate. (B).
Parental material. (C). Topography. (D). Time. (E). Soil profile.
TOPIC: SIMPLE FARM TOOLS, USES AND MAINTENANCE
MEANING AND TYPES OF SIMPLE FARM TOOLS
Simple farm tools are simple, handy tools made up of metals and
wooden handles used mainly by peasant farmers to carry out
farming operations in the farm. They are designed to help the
hands to apply force in farm operations. They make the work easier,
faster and safer.
TYPES OF FARM TOOLS: These tools can be classified into :
(i)Farm and horticultural tools
1.Farm and Horticultural Tools are those simple tools used for
cultivation of arable crops, fruit, vegetable and flowers.
Example include cutlasses, hoes, rakes, hand forks, garden
fork , shears, pick axe, spades, hand trowel, shovel,
secateurs, watering can, harvesting sickle, head pan, wheel
barrow, axe, pruning saw, budding knife, budizzor castrator,
etc.
2.Workshop or accessory tools: These are tools used in
workshop to repair or maintain farm implement and farm
machines. They include hammer, spanner, screw driver,
SIMPLE FARM TOOLS
FARM AND HORTICULTURAL TOOLS
Cutlass: It has a short wooden handle and flat metal blade. Two main types
exist – one has a straight blade while the other has curved blade.
Uses
(i)Clearing of bush and farmland.
(ii)Digging holes
(iii)Transplanting of seedlings.
(iv)Planting operation
(v)Weeding
(vi)Harvesting some crops e.g yam.
(vii)Cutting sticks in the farm
(viii)Breaking and cracking of pods and shells.
Hoe: It has curved metal blade and wooden handle. There are two types, the
West Indian hoe and West Africa hoe. The West African hoe has a short
wooden handle while the West Indian hoe has a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i)Making of heaps
(ii)Preparing ridges
(iii)Turning of the soil
(iv)Transplanting of seedling
(v)Loosening of the soil surface
(vi)Uprooting stumps
(vii)Digging holes
(viii)Harvesting of crops like yam, cassava etc.
Spade: It has a D-shaped rectangular metal blade and a long wooden
handle.
Uses
(i)Lifting the soil from one place to another.
(ii)Turning of the soil
(iii)Digging holes
(iv)Transplanting of seedling
(v)Filling of holes in the farm
(vi)For levelling loose soils
(vii)For mixing concrete
(viii)For weeding.
Hand Trowel: It has a shot, curved metal blade with a short wooden handle.
Uses
(i)Transplanting seedling from the nursery to the bed.
(ii)Spreading manure or mixing fertilizer with oil in the farm
(iii)Digging holes on beds.
Axe: It has a short heavy metal head with a sharp edge and a long wooden
or metal handle.
Uses
(iv)Falling trees in the farm
(v)Cutting logs.
(vi)Uprooting stumps
(vii)Splitting fire wood at home.
Garden Fork: Has four to eight long-pronged metal forks, with a
long wooden or metal handle.
Uses
(i)Turning manure during compost preparations
(ii)Loosening of the soil surface
(iii)For spreading manure.
Hand Fork: Has four-pronged metal forks with a short wooden
handle.
Uses
For loosening surface soil around seedlings
Transplanting from the nursery to the seed beds.
Essential for weeding seed beds.
Rake: It has eight to twelve short pronged forks fitted to a long wooden or metal
handle.
Uses
(i) Removing rubbish from the farm.
(ii)Covering vegetable seeds beds.
(iii)Weeds are also removed from seed beds.
(iv)Levelling of soil surface.
Watering Can: It is made up of metal or aluminium tank with a stem covered by
perforated metal sheet covering from which water is sprayed. The perforated sheet is
called a rose.
Uses
Supplying water to young seedlings in the seed beds and nursery
Irrigating flowers
Sprinkling of foliar fertilizers.
Spraying chemicals e.g disinfectants.
It is used for watering cement blocks used for constructing farm house.
Shears: It works like scissors, operated with two hands and has sharp blades.
Uses
(i)Trimming hedges
(ii)Cutting of flowers to shape
(iii)For removal of dead parts or excessive branches (pruning)
(iv)For cutting long grasses.
Secateurs: it is a scissors-like in shape but small in size. It possesses two short
wooden or metal handles. It usually has a spring between the handles. They
operate like shears but have shorter frocked blade and are operated with one
hand.
Uses
(v)For pruning bushes, shrubs, ornamental plants and for weeding
(vi)Cutting of side branches of shrubs
(vii)For taking hardwood cuttings.
Sickle: It has a round wooden handle with a sharp curved metal blade. The
inner edge of the blade is sharp while the outer edge is blunt.
Uses
(i)Harvesting of cereals like , wheat, rice, millet etc.
(ii)Harvesting of oil palm fruits.
(iii)Cutting forages for livestock
Head Pan: It is bowl-like, slightly spherical with two small handles. It is made of
metal
Uses
Collection of harvested crops.
Mixing of fertilizers
Transporting soil in the farm
Transporting compost from the reservoir to where necessary in the farm
Packing weeds and stones out of the farm.
Spade: It has a D-shaped rectangular metal blade and a long wooden handle.
Uses
(i) Lifting the soil from one place to another.
(ii)Turning of the soil
(iii)Digging holes
(iv)Transplanting of seedling
(v)Filling of holes in the farm
(vi)For levelling loose soils
(vii)For mixing concrete
(viii)For weeding.
Shovel: It is like a spade, but has a curved or V-shaped metal blade with a long wooden
handle.
Uses
Transferring soil from one place to another.
Harvesting and planting of crops.
Light weeding in the farm.
Wheel Barrow: This has a big deep bucket mounted on tyres. The bucket
is made of metal.
Uses
(i)For transporting harvested crops.
(ii)Carrying of manure from one place to another.
(iii)For carrying tools in the farm.
Pick Axe or Digger: This is a tool that has a long wooden handle and
metal head with double blades. One is short and narrow, the other is
shaped into a small narrow axe-like blade.
Uses
(iv)It is used to remove trees and roots
(v)Digging of hand soil
It can be used for making ridges.
File: It has a straight steel blade with a sharp cutting edge. It is about 20-30cm
long with a wooden handle. Files can come in different shapes and grades
according to the requirement of the job. E.g
Flat file: for general use
Triangular file: for saw tooth sharpening
Cylindrical file: for widening holes.
Uses
To sharpen the blunt blades of farm tools
It is used for smoothening of rough surface of farm implements.
Harvesting Knife or go-to-hell: It is made up of two parts, a long wooden
handle that is inserted into a small curved metal blade. It also has a short
strong blade.
Uses
It is used for harvesting permanent crops e.g cocoa, orange, kola, oilpalm etc.
For pruning.
WORKSHOP OR ACCESSORY TOOLS
Accessory or Workshop Tools: These are the
right tools used in workshop for various
carpentry or mechanical jobs on the farm.
Examples of workshop or accessory tools
include: Hammer, Pliers, Screw drivers,
Chisels, File, Hacksaws, Pinches, Spanners,
files, etc.
IDENTIFICATION OF VARIOUS ACCESSORY TOOLS.
THE VARIOUS ACCESSORY TOOLS AND THEIR USES
Hammer: These are made of heavy metal head attached to wooden
handles and the reverse side of the head may be a claw. The various
hammers found in the workshop are cross-pein, pin, and wooden
shafted claw. Hammers may be used for the following:
Straightening damaged or bent components of farm implements.
For driving nails into the wooden parts of farm
structures/equipment.
The pronged end is used for removing nails from wood.
Pliers: These are mouthed tooth-metal instruments whose handles
are fitted with rubber. They are designed for gripping or holding,
cutting and bending wire. The various pliers used are engineer’s
combination, slip-joint and snipe nose pliers.
Spanners: These are made of a chrome or steel alloy. Spanners
are used to tighten or loosen nuts and bolts of farm implements.
The two common types are ring spanner and open ended
spanner. Others are box spanner and the socket spanner.
Screwdrivers: These consist of a long steel rod with a flattened
end which can be fitted into the head of a screw. The two types
of screwdrivers that can be found in a workshop are flat
screwdrivers and star screwdrivers. The type of screwdrivers to
be used will depend on the screw to be loosened or tightened.
Their uses involve either for tightening or driving in screws, or
for loosening of screws.
Chisels: These have a hardened steel blade which
tapers into a very sharp edge and they are used for
cutting wood.
Hacksaw: These consist of a frame into which a saw
blade is fitted. It is used for cutting metals.
Punches: The punch has a pointed end and is used
with a hammer for making metal or making hole in
a sheet of metal. Punches with flat end are used for
 GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF SIMPLE FRAM TOOLS.
The following maintenance practices or precautions are to be adopted in
order to prolong the usefulness of the tools.
(a)Tools should be washed and dry.
(b) Cleaned after use.
(c)Sharpen the blunt cutting edges or blades.
(d)Oil/ grease or lubricate movable joints to reduce.
(e)Store in a dry and cool place.
(f)Handle tools with care and use for intended purposes only.
(g)Rub metal blades with grease or paint them so as to prevent rusting.
(h)Worn out parts should be replaced without delay.
(i)Tighten all bolts or nuts in the tool.
(j)Keep the wooden part away from termite and fire.
TOPIC: DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA:
STAGES AND PROBLEMS.
SUB-TOPIC: HISTORY OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT.
1. MAN AS EARLY HUNTER AND
GATHERER.
2. SUBSISTENCE FARMING.
3. LAND ROTATION/ CROP ROTATION.
4. COMMERCIAL FARMING.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA: STAGES AND PROBLEMS.
MAN AS EARLY HUNTER AND GATHERER
MAN AS EARLY GATHERER
Man’s major need from the time he evolved (work out; develop: undergo
development; acquire or gain through experience) was to secure food.
In ancient times, the early man lived by hunting wild animals and gathering
fruits, roots, and vegetables. He neither needs clothing nor houses, because
he wandered from one place to the other.
Man’s first crop grew by accident or chance. The early man discovered that
the discarded (throwaway; thrown-away or cast-off) seeds or parts of wild
plants that they had eaten, grew around the places where they were thrown.
From this point, he learnt to ensure his future supply of food by gathering
desirable seeds and fruits and plant them.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA: STAGES AND PROBLEMS.
MAN AS EARLY HUNTER.
The first wild animals tamed were the young wild beasts curbed (hold;
control; suppress; subdue; restrict; conquer; to put down by force or
authority) by the early man as he wandered about in the forest. The
young ones of these wild animals, seeing their mother’s fall, came
down and followed their mother stayed there till the hunters came and
trapped them, and returned to their camps with them. After some
times, the male of such animals mated with the female of their kind
and produced young ones. Instead of killing all the animals at once
when the animals’ population increased, man learnt to spare (save or
kept in reserve) some of the healthier ones and reared them around
their camps.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN NIGERIA: STAGES AND PROBLEMS.
MAN AS EARLY HUNTER AND GATHERER
In this way, farm animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, fowls, horses,
dogs and other animals became domesticated. Then, this eliminated
the pattern of day-to-day (every day) hunting. All this led to settled life.
Initially, plants were sown on already existing vegetation. Later, man
observed that plants grew better when the soil was tilled (broken up or
loosen). This later also led to the use of implements like cutlasses and
hoes made out of sticks and stones, to prepare the ground for growing
crops.
Later, men trained some farm animals such as oxen ,horses, donkeys,
cattle to be work animals to pull ploughs and harrows while hoes and
cutlasses became constructed with metal and wood.
STAGES OF AGRICULTURAL
DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.
1.Subsistence/shifting cultivation stage.
2.Land rotation/Bush fallowing/
Rotational bush fallowing stage.
3.Crop rotational stage.
4.Commercial farming stages.
Subsistence/Shifting Cultivation Stage.
After the stage of the early man, agriculture further developed to a stage of self
sufficiency known as subsistence farming. It is the first stage of agriculture.
Subsistence farming is a system of farming which involves the production of crops and animals by a
farmer to feed himself and his family. This is a system of farming whereby a farmer cultivates crops
and rears animals in order to produce food for himself and his family only. At this stage, farmers
produce crops and animals to feed themselves and their families.
Characteristics of Subsistence Agriculture/farming
1. It requires small capital/finance.
2. Mixed cropping is mostly practiced.
3. There is limited used of agro-chemicals e.g pesticides and fertilizers.
4. Unimproved varieties of crops and breeds of animals are used.
5. There is little or no surplus for sale.
6. It involves the used of crude/traditional tools such as hoes, machetes/cutlasses.
7. It involves mainly the production of food crops.
8. It is done on small area of land.
9. It uses family/unskilled labour.
10. Yield/Output is low.
Subsistence/Shifting Cultivation Stage.
Shifting cultivation: In this system, a farmer cultivates a piece of land for
two or more years after which he abandons it for another land with no
intention of returning again to that land. The piece of land is cultivated
for many years until when its nutrients are exhausted and it is no longer
giving a good yield of crops, it is then abandoned for another virgin land.
Advantages
1. This system helps to check the build-up of pests and diseases.
2. Soil fertility is restored without using fertilizers.
3. Helps to build up organic matter.
Disadvantages
4. It can only be practiced in areas with low population density.
5. It requires a lot of land which may not be easily available.
6. Clearing new farmland leads to wastage of money, time and energy.
Land rotation/Bush fallowing/Rotational bush fallowing stage
This involves the growing of crops on a piece of land until it is
exhausted and the land is left to fallow for some years before it is
used again.
Under this system, the land is used for 3-4 years after which it is
left to revert to bush. The reason for this is to allow the land to rest
and regains its lost nutrients.
The time land is left to regain its fertility is referred to as fallow
period which may be between 4-8 years depending on the history
of the land, population density and land availability.
The resting period allows the land to enrich itself again through
decayed leaves and plant parts, while the farmer uses another of
his land to cultivate before returning to the former. So he can
conveniently arrange this movement in a rotation. That is how the
name ‘’rotational bush fallowing’’ come to existence.
Land rotation/Bush fallowing/Rotational bush fallowing stage
Advantages
1. It is a natural and cheap means of restoring soil fertility.
2. There is build-up of organic matter.
3. It helps to control crop pests and diseases since there are no
natural hosts for the pests and disease pathogens, they will
naturally die.
Disadvantages
4. It can only be practiced In areas with low population density.
5. It requires a lot of land, because the farmer has to move from
one land to another.
6. There is less efficient use of land, since there will be no crop
planted during fallow period.
Crop rotation: Is the system of planting different types of crops
on a piece of land every year following a definite or sequential
order. It is a scientific alternative to land rotation/bush
fallowing.
Principles of crop rotation
1. Crops that require high nutrient should come first in a
rotation.
2. Deep rooted crops e.g yam should be followed by shallow
rooted crops e.g maize and vice versa.
3. Crops that can attacked by the same pests and diseases
should not follow each other e.g maize and guinea corn.
4. Crops that requires the same nutrients should not follow
each other e.g maize and rice.
5. Leguminous crops or cover crops should be included in the
Crop rotation.
Advantages
1. It helps to maintain soil fertility.
2. Pests, disease and weeds are easily controlled.
3. Land is put into maximum use.
4. The system can be practiced where land is scarce.
5. It helps to check soil erosion.
Disadvantages
6. It needs special knowledge to practice successfully.
7. It leads to depletion of nutrients with subsequent yield
reduction if not well planned.
8. It is labour intensive
9. It is costly to establish
10.Farmer cannot specialize on a particular crop.
Crop rotation A 4-year mixed cropping crop rotation plan.
  Plot A Plot B Plot C Plot D

Year 1 Yam icw vegetable Early maize ipw Cassava Cowpea

cowpeas fb late
maize

Year 2 Early maize ipw Cassava Cowpea Yam icw vegetable

cowpeas fb late
maize
Year 3 Cassava Cowpea Yam icw vegetable Early maize ipw
cowpeas fb late
maize
Year 4 Cowpea Yam icw vegetable Early maize ipw Cassava
cowpeas fb late
maize
Commercial Agriculture
This is the type of agriculture which involves the production of crops and animals in
large quantities for sale.
 
Characteristics of Commercial Agriculture
1. Sole/mono-cropping is usually practiced
2. Yields are high
3. It requires large capital
4. Most operations of commercial agriculture are mechanized
5. It makes used of hired/paid and skilled labour
6. Improved varieties of crops and breeds of animals are used
7. It involves the cultivation of large hectares of land
8. It uses agro-chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers
9. Storage and processing facilities are required
10. Produce is mainly for sale or export
HISTORY OF AGRICULTUE IN NIGERIA.
1. The Colonial Era.
During the colonial era, rural (subsistence) agriculture was practiced. They were
using hoes and cutlasses as their main farm implements. With the coming of the
Europeans, the peasant farmers were forced to produce cash crops such as
groundnuts, rubber, cocoa, oil palm, cotton, etc which were needed in their own
industries. The British merchants bought these farm produce at high prices.
In exchange, they sold goods like radios, laptop computers, vehicles, bicycles, etc to
Nigerians.
Later, other Europeans joined the British in buying farm products from Nigerians.
These foreigners also brought some exotic crops which were adapted to the Nigerian
environment. All these led to the spread of rural plantation farms and individual
commercial farms, since they realized that the production and sale of these cash crops
yielded more money to buy those exotic goods like radios, vehicles, bicycles, etc and to
enjoy higher standard of living.
HISTORY OF AGRICULTUE IN NIGERIA.
In this era, government took steps to develop agriculture in the nation.
HISTORY OF AGRICULTUE IN NIGERIA.
2. In Modern Times.
The Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources was
established in the mid 1960s to control agricultural production.
During the oil boom period, emphasis shifted from agriculture.
Young school leavers left rural areas and moved to towns in
search of white-collar (office) jobs. There was inadequate
(insufficient) agricultural production to meet up with the
teeming (rapidly increasing) population. Nigeria started
massive importation of food, instead of exporting. With the oil
glut and decline in oil income, the government declared serious
measures and took steps to re-emphasize agriculture.
HISTORY OF AGRICULTUE IN NIGERIA.
1. Operation Feed the Nation.
The ‘’Operation Feed the Nation’’(OFN) was set up by
General Olusegun Obasanjo, during his military regime
between 1976 and 1979.
It was aimed at:
I. To increase food production.
II. To popularize agriculture.
III.To provide food for all Nigerians.
IV. To facilitate agricultural development in all parts of
Nigeria.
HISTORY OF AGRICULTUE IN NIGERIA.
2. Green Revolution.
President Shehu Shagari also set up the ‘’ Green
Revolution’’ programme between 1979 and 1983.
The aims were:
I. To encourage large- scale farming.
II. To produce abundant food crops for local
consumption.
III. To produce cash crops for export purposes.
IV. To establish River Basin Authorities to boost the
supply of water for irrigation purposes.
HISTORY OF AGRICULTUE IN NIGERIA.
3. School to Land.
General Muhammadu Buhari, introduced ‘’School to Land’’ programme in 1984.
4. National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP).
This was established to educate farmers on methods of increasing productivity on
their land.
5. Agricultural Development Programme (ADP).
The objectives of establishing this programme were:
I. To support farmers to increase agricultural production.
II. To make provision of rural infrastructural facilities like roads, schools, health
services, rural electrification, clean water, etc.
III. To increase the level of extension contact with farmers.
IV. To assist in the supply of modern farm inputs such as chemicals, seeds, and
fertilizers.
6. National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA).
 PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND POSSIBLE
SOLUTIONS.
Some of these problems are:
1.Inadequate Land or Land Tenure System.
2.Poor Storage and Processing Facilities.
3.Inadequate Finance of Credit Facilities.
4.Inadequate Farm Inputs.
5.Inadequate Basic Amenities.
6.Problems of Transportation.
7.Low level of Agricultural Education and Extension.
8.Unstable or Inconsistence Government Policies.
9.Environmental Degradation.
10.Rural-Urban Migration
11.Poor Marketing Systems.
1. Most Nigerian farms sell their produce immediately after harvesting
because (a) stored produce will be lost to pest (b) there are inadequate
storage facilities (c) the produce is perishable (d) the prices offered for
stored produce are low
2. Which of the following is not a problem of agricultural development in
Nigeria? (a) Provision of food and employment (b) land tenure system (c)
poor climatic condition (d) poor storage facilities
3. Wastage of agricultural products during harvesting period is mainly due
to (a) inadequate storage facilities (b) adequate storage and processing
facilities (c) agricultural education and extension (d) implementation of
government policies on agriculture
4. Food shortage can be minimized by (a) efficient pest control services (b)
natural hazards (c) hoarding (d) illegal exportation of farm produce
5. The most important climatic factor that determine the success or failure
of crop production in Nigeria is (a) rainfall (b) wind (c) sunlight (d) humidity
ASSIGNMENT
1. State 8 problems of agricultural
development in Nigeria and suggest two
possible solution to each of them.
2. Discuss briefly the ways in which the
following factors contribute to the problems of
agricultural development in Nigeria (a) finance
(b) farm input (c) transportation (d) storage
and processing facilities.
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL LAWS AND REFORMS
LAND TENURE SYSTEM IN NIGERIA.
Land Tenure is defined as the system of land
ownership or the acquisition of land by
individuals, family, community or
government agencies either for temporal or
permanent use.
Classification of Land Tenure System
1. Individual land tenure system.
2. Rent tenure system.
3. Communal land tenure.
4. Land tenure by inheritance.
5. Land tenure by purchase or freehold.
6. Land tenure by free gift or pledge.
7. Leasehold land tenure system.
8. Tenant at the will of government.
THE LAND USE DECREE OF 1978 AND ITS
IMPLICATIONS
Land Use Decree is the decree that removed
ownership from the traditional land owners
and placed it in the hands of government.
The decree was promulgated by the Federal
Government of Nigeria in 1978 during the
reign of General Olusegun Obasanjo.
Features of the Land Use Act (Decree)
1. It was promulgated by the Federal Government in March 29, 1978
2. It takes of the inadequacies inherent in land ownership in Nigeria.
3. All land in the country is vested in the federal government
4. Each state is empowered to act on behalf of the federal government in all
matters related to land use in the state
5. To be a legal owner of a piece of land , Certificate of Occupancy (C of O) must
be obtained from the federal government on the acquired land
6. Every Nigerian is qualified to acquire land for use once they have attained the
age of 21 years
7. The decree stipulate that individual can only use a piece of land for 99 years
after which the land reverts to the government
8. That farmers should not be allocated more than 500 hectares of land for crop
production or 5000 hectares for grazing animals.
Aims Of Land Use Decree
1. It encourages proper and efficient use of land
2. It allocates land and creates opportunities for
enterprising farmers to acquire more land
3. It facilitates planning or formation of programs for a
particular land use
4. It streamlines and simplifies the management and
ownership of land in the country
5. It removes the unpleasant controversies which land
IMPLICATIONS OF THE LAND USE ACT
The Land Use Act of 1978 has the following implications
1. Individual ownership of land now ceases. The only relationship
between an individual and the land is that of use
2. Land can be obtained by anybody who needs it. Enough land is
therefore made available for agriculture and industries.
3. The decree does not dispose any Nigerian of his acquire property
which is being lawfully and optimally used
4. To prevent the practice of buying large expanse of land at cheap
price and selling it at a very high price in the future
5. It allows any individual above the age of 21years to apply for
Certificate of Occupancy.
Advantages Of Land Use Decree
1. Land acquisition for new entrants into agriculture become easier
2. It has reduced the number and frequency of court cases over land
ownership
3. People can acquire land outside their tribe or state . That is any
where within Nigeria
4. Certificate of Occupancy can be used to source for loan from
banks
5. It prevents fragmentation of land since land acquired under the
decree can not be shared into bits
6. Large hectares of land can be acquired for agricultural purposes.
DISADVANTAGES
1. It makes difficult for the federal government to acquire land
2. Land acquisition now lies on the few rich individuals.
3. The state governor can abuse his power by revoking the Certificate of
Occupancy prematurely
4. It makes land use difficult
5. It creates room for irregularities as many land speculators may backdate land
agreement before the decree.
6. It may delay the execution of projects as the governor might not sign the
Certificate of Occupancy on time.
7. Cost of land survey has escalated
8. It makes land held by inheritance insecure before the land Use Act.
9. Land is not necessarily allocated to every potential agricultural developer.