COURSE OUTLINE

1. Introduction to strategic Planning and Planning

Challenges Facing Organizations

2. Role of Leadership in the Planning Process

3. Comparison of Different Planning Models
4. The Strategic
5. Planning Process and Using Planning Tools
6. Identify and Understand the Role of Stakeholders in
the Planning Process
7. Identifying the Ideal Vision, And Defining Mission
8. Needs Assessment- Environmental Scanning
🞂9. Developing The Strategic Plan
🞂10. Evaluation, Assessment, and Revision of Strategic
Plans
Introduction to Strategic Planning
Definition of Terms
🞂Planning is the intellectual anticipation of possible
future situations, the selection of desirable situations
to be achieved (objectives) and the determination of
relevant actions that need to betaken in order to
reach those objectives at a reasonable cost.
🞂In other words, planning implies thinking about the
future and trying to assume control over future events by
organizing and managing resources so that they cater to
the successful completion of the objectives set forth.
🞂Adesina, (1990) defines planning as “ a way of
projecting our intentions, that is, a method of deciding
what we want to accomplish”.

🞂Ejiogu, (1990) holds that ‘to plan, means to project,

forecast, design or make or chart our a course’.

From these views, it can be summarized that ‘planning

refers to the act of deciding in advance what is to be
done, how and when to do it, where and who is to do it, in
order to achieve the goals or objectives of the system’.
🞂Educational planning can be defined as ‘the process of
setting out in advance, strategies, policies, procedures,
programmes and standards through which an
educational objective (or set of objectives) can be
achieved’.

🞂Educational planning is a detailed and systematic

process: it just does not happen by chance. It is goal-
oriented: it is directed at achieving a set educational
objectives.
 Importance of Educational Planning

🞂 It helps in identifying educational goals and objectives.

🞂 It helps in even or effective distribution of scarce resources.

🞂 It aids decision making in education.

🞂 It is necessary for administrative decision making in

education.
🞂 It enables a nation to make her choices clear in terms of

educational needs.
🞂 It enhances optional utilization of resources and so

eliminates imbalance and waste.

🞂 Effective planning makes provision for quality education,

sustainable national economy.

🞂 Effective educational planning enhances investment in

human capital which leads to rapid national economic

growth.
🞂Educational planning reduces exigencies in the
educational sector. Problems are anticipated in time
and dealt with appropriately.
🞂It enables stakeholders in education to gain
economic insight in the use of scarce educational
resources. Since education is a social good that
provides benefits to the people and the nation, it is
important that education should be well planned.
🞂Well planned education enhances literacy and
reduces ignorance among citizens.
🞂Planning gives direction and guidelines for a
country’s educational system.
 Characteristics of Educational Planning

Primacy of Planning
🞂 Planning is the first step in management. It takes precedence over all the other managerial

functions. Everybody plans even though not everybody plans well.

Planning is pervasive
🞂 Planning cuts across all levels of management and all the other managerial functions.

Whether at the primary, secondary or university level of education, planning is done. For
example the managerial functions of organizing, staffing, etc. involve some planning.

Planning is Mission - Oriented

🞂 Planning involves the mapping out or charting of activities in such a way that it helps to

satisfy human wants. Thus, planning is goal-directed i.e. planning is directed at achieving a
specified goal or a set of goals.

Planning is Future-Oriented
🞂 Planning as said earlier on, is a process of deciding in advance what should

be done in future, how it is to be done, who will do it, when and where to
do it. This process takes into consideration past trends and present
experiences in order to project into the future.
 Educational Planning Process (Broad)

Statement of educational objectives

The educational objectives must be identified
and clearly stated. This will ensure that there
is no confusion about the objectives.
Identification of various activities
The various activities which are needed to
achieve the stated objectives must be clearly
identified.
Evaluation of results
Evaluation should be related to the stated
objectives.
 USES OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

Identification of Objectives and strategies

Educational planning helps in identifying and
defining the objectives and the strategies,
programs, procedures, policies and standards
which education needs to be more effective
and efficient.
Proper Distribution of Scarce Resources
By scarce resources, we mean the limited
resources which are available to satisfy our wants
(needs).
Educational Planning aids decision -making
Educational Planning helps decision makers at
all levels to reach a better and well informed
decision.
 THE NEED OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING
Resources are limited
Thus the need to determine in advance a program of action
for the attainment of the goal within a given time.
To achieve maximum effectiveness, efficiency
Adequate plans help to direct and co-ordinate the actions of
employees in order to achieve maximum effectiveness,
efficiency and productivity.
Help in administrative decisions
Planning is necessary for administrative decisions in
education, for it aims at putting into action what educators
deems to achieve.

Clear choices
Planning enables a nation to make its choices clear in terms of the
aim and objectives.

Optimum Utilization of Resources:

Educational plans are designed to avoid imbalances and enormous
wastes and replenish the steadily aggravated shortage of teachers.
 COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING

🞂Educational status
🞂Supply and Demand of Teachers
🞂Educational Financing
🞂School Buildings
🞂Curriculum Development
🞂Educational Materials
🞂Expansion Models
🞂Relevance to Political, Economic, Social and Cultural
🞂Policies and Objectives
🞂Integrated Implementation
🞂Legal Bases
 Traditional Development Planning

🞂According to this definition, planning is nothing

exceptional. Human beings have been planning in one
way or another since rational thinking emerged.
However, as a formalized way of organizing
development in complex societies, planning is an
invention of the twentieth century and more focused
hierarchy rather than results.
 Main criticisms of Traditional Planning

Too much focus on plan preparation and not enough on plan implementation
🞂 It was assumed too quickly that once a good plan had been prepared the

implementation would follow almost automatically. Hence very few mechanisms

were set up for systematic monitoring of plan implementations. Furthermore, the
fact that many plans were prepared by external technical assistants it did not
facilitate national ownership, without which implementation is likely to fail.

Plans were being prepared in a top-down, technocratic way

🞂 Most plans were prepared by the planning units (and their technical assistants) with

little or noninvolvement from the rest of the ministry staff, not to mention staff at
decentralized levels of management and civil society partners. The consequence
was again a severe lack of identification with (or even knowledge of) the objectives
of the plan and priority actions by those responsible for implementing it. Indeed,
while a plan can easily be prepared by a handful of technical experts, the
responsibility for its implementation involves, the entire ministry staff and requires
the commitment of
all.
Not enough consideration was given to the changing
environment
🞂Plans were being prepared with the implicit assumption
that the planners have all the information and techniques
needed to develop a complete, correct plan which can be
executed from beginning to end. Many plans simply
ended up on the bookshelves of the Ministries, however,
whenever they were implemented , it was done in a rigid,
mechanical way. Not enough flexibility was built in to
adapt to changing circumstances.
 Strategic Planning

🞂Strategic planning is a management tool to help an

organization improve its performance by ensuring
that the members of the organization are working
towards the same goals and by continuously
adjusting the direction of the organization to the
changing environment on the basis of results
obtained.
🞂Differences Between Traditional and Strategic
Planning
The Main Stages of Strategic Planning
 What is the Role of Leadership in Strategy
Management?

🞂 Leadership quality plays as a key role in order to form and enforce a

strategy. It works as a linkage which associates the heart of the institution
with its body. The pledge kept by the leader is responsible for encouraging
the institutions to become successful, and this success comes out of making
effective decisions for the formulation of strategy and their enactment. If the
strategies are not enacted with perfection, great strategies become
insignificant. Strategies formulated lower than 50% see the light of
enactment as there is dearth of leadership skills.

🞂 Leaders give directions to what is the course of performance and the ways to
accomplish that. Broadly, leader associated with an institute has the
responsibilities for offering the vision, and he taking recourse of strategies
reflects, chalks out the plan, and oversees the functioning undertakings.
Moreover, he makes an attempt to suit his organization in congruity with the
needs of the circumstances. Leaders disseminate energy boosting activities
and heightened the morale and the spirit of the workers.
 What is Leadership?

🞂 The definition of strategic leadership denotes “the leader’s ability to

anticipate, envision, and maintain flexibility and to empower others
to create strategic change as necessary” (Hitt, Ireland, & Hoskisson
2008: 375).

🞂 Strategic leadership has many facets, and it encompasses managing

via others, and works as a helper for organizations to adjust with the
changing world that appears as happening substantially as ever with
the pace of time in today’s global business matrix.

🞂 Strategic leadership demands the capability to incorporate and

include both of the business environment of the organizations,
which are internal and external. It is also responsible for managing
and encompassing critical information processes.
🞂There are many recognizable actions which determine
strategic leadership that can proffer positively towards
effective strategy enactment, and they are in the
following:
◦  Determining strategic direction

◦  Establishing balanced organizational controls

◦  Effectively managing the organization’s resource

portfolio

◦  Sustaining an effective organizational culture

◦  Emphasizing ethical practices organizational controls

 Models and Tools in Educational Planning

🞂Balanced Scorecard
🞂The Balanced Scorecard is a strategy management
framework created by Drs. Robert Kaplan and David
Norton. It takes into account your:
🞂Objectives, which are high-level organizational goals.
🞂Measures, which help you understand if you’re
accomplishing your objective strategically.
🞂Initiatives, which are key action programs that help
you ach
🞂 Strategy Map
🞂 A strategy map is a visual tool designed to clearly communicate a

strategic plan and achieve high-level business goals. Strategy

mapping is a major part of the Balanced Scorecard (though it isn’t
exclusive to the BSC) and offers an excellent way to communicate
the high-level information across your organization in an easily-
digestible format. A strategy map offers a host of benefits:
🞂 It provides a simple, clean, visual representation that is easily

referred back to.

🞂 It unifies all goals into a single strategy.
🞂 It gives every employee a clear goal to keep in mind while

accomplishing tasks and measures.

🞂 It helps identify your key goals.
🞂 It allows you to better understand which elements of your strategy

need work.
🞂 It helps you see how your objectives affect the others.
🞂SWOT Analysis

🞂A SWOT analysis (or SWOT matrix) is a high-level

model used at the beginning of an organization’s
strategic planning. It is an acronym for “strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.” Strengths and
weaknesses are considered internal factors, and
opportunities and threats are considered external
factors.
🞂PEST Model or PESTEL

🞂Like SWOT, PEST is also an acronym—it stands for

“political, economic, sociocultural, and technological.”
Each of these factors is used to look at an industry or
business environment, and determine what could affect
an organization’s health. The PEST model is often used
in conjunction with the external factors of a SWOT
analysis.
🞂 Gap Planning

🞂 Gap planning is also referred to as a “Need-Gap Analysis,”

“Need Assessment,” or “the Strategic-Planning Gap.” It is
used to compare where an organization is now, where it
wants to be, and how to bridge the gap between. It is
primarily used to identify specific internal deficiencies.

🞂 In your gap planning research, you may also hear about a

“change agenda” or “shift chart.” These are similar to gap
planning, as they both take into consideration the difference
between where you are now and where you want to be
along various axes. From there, your planning process is
about how to ‘close the gap.’
🞂 Blue Ocean Strategy
🞂 Blue Ocean Strategy is a strategic planning model that

emerged in a book by the same name in 2005. The book

—titled “Blue Ocean Strategy: How to Create
Uncontested Market Space and Make Competition
Irrelevant”—was written by W. Chan Kim and Renée
Mauborgne, professors at the European Institute of
Business Administration (INSEAD).
🞂 The idea behind Blue Ocean Strategy is for organizations

to develop in “uncontested market space” (e.g. a blue

ocean) instead of a market space that is either developed
or saturated (e.g. a red ocean). If your organization is
able to create a blue ocean, it can mean a massive value
boost for your company, its buyers, and its employees.
🞂 Porter’s Five Forces
🞂 Porter’s Five Forces is an older strategy execution framework (created

by Michael Porter in 1979) built around the forces that impact the
profitability of an industry or a market. The five forces it examines are:
🞂 The threat of entry. Could other companies enter the marketplace easily,

or are there numerous entry barriers they would have to overcome?

🞂 The threat of substitute products or services. Can buyers easily replace

your product with another?

🞂 The bargaining power of customers. Could individual buyers put

pressure on your organization to, say, lower costs?

🞂 The bargaining power of suppliers. Could large retailers put pressure on

your organization to drive down the cost?

🞂 The competitive rivalry among existing firms. Are your current

competitors poised for major growth? If one launches a new product or

files a new patent—could that impact your company?
The amount of pressure on each of these forces can help you determine
how future events will impact the future of your company.
🞂 VRIO Framework

🞂 The VRIO framework is an acronym for value, rarity, imitability, organization.”

This strategic planning process relates more to your vision statement than your overall
strategy. The ultimate goal in implementing the VRIO model is that it will result in a
competitive advantage in the marketplace.

Here’s how to think of each of the four VRIO components:

🞂 Value: Are you able to exploit an opportunity or neutralize an outside threat using a

particular resource?
🞂 Rarity: Is there a great deal of competition in your market, or do only a few

companies control the resource referred to above?

🞂 Imitability: Is your organization’s product or service easily imitated, or would it be

difficult for another organization to do so?

🞂 Organization: Is your company organized enough to be able to exploit your product

or resource?

Once you answer these four questions, you’ll be able to formulate a more precise vision
statement to help carry you through all the additional strategic elements in your plan.
Baldrige Framework
🞂 The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is “the highest level of national recognition
for performance excellence that a U.S. organization can receive.” Created in 1987, the goal of
Baldrige is to help organizations innovate and improve, while achieving their mission and
vision. The award is currently open to manufacturing, service, small business, nonprofit,
government, education, and healthcare sectors.
🞂 When applying to win the Baldrige award at the national level, organizations undergo a

competitive process that involves the implementation of the Baldrige framework. The

framework outlines the “Baldrige Criteria For Performance Excellence,” where organizations
must demonstrate achievement and improvement to an independent board of examiners in
these seven areas:
🞂 Leadership
🞂 Planning and strategy
🞂 Customers
🞂 Measurement, analysis, and knowledge management
🞂 Workforce

🞂 Process
🞂 Results

🞂 To implement the Baldrige framework in your organization, start with two questionnaires

 that help you self-assess based on the seven Baldrige Criteria categories, and get a snapshot of
your strengths and opportunities for improvement.
🞂 OKRs (Objectives and Key Results)
🞂 The strategic planning model of choice for Google, Intel, Spotify, Twitter,
LinkedIn, and many other Silicon Valley successes, the OKR framework, is
one of the more straightforward strategic planning tools. It’s designed to create
alignment and engagement around measurable goals by clearly defining:
🞂 Objectives: What you want to achieve. Choose three to five objectives that are

brief, inspiring, and time-bound.

🞂 Key Results: How you’ll measure progress toward your achievements. Set

three to five key results (they must be quantitative) per objective.

🞂 This model is effective in part because of its simplicity; it also employs a

“reverse” hierarchy that works to gain buy-in and alignment from the ground
up. You begin by setting OKRs at the employee level and then flow upward
through the management levels. The OKR framework is also effective because
goals are continually set, tracked, and re-evaluated so organizations can quickly
adapt when needed. This is a fast-paced, iterative approach that flips the
traditional top-down strategic models. The RACI matrix is a helpful visual for
defining the role each person in your organization has for projects and
processes, ensuring it aligns with their OKRs.
What is a RACI chart?
A RACI chart, also known as a RACI matrix or RACI model, is a diagram that identifies the
key roles and responsibilities of users against major tasks within a project. RACI charts
serve as a visual representation of the functional role played by each person on a project
team. Creating these charts is also an excellent exercise in balancing workload and
establishing the decision-maker.
 Step 1: Identify the team members.
🞂 Examples include the project manager, executive sponsor, product manager, software

developer, and business analyst.

Step 2: Identify the major milestones in the project.

🞂 If we take a project like building a website, the examples are website designing, testing,

and client approval.

Step 3: Draw a matrix with a row for each team member and a column for each
task/milestone.
🞂 You can easily use Microsoft Excel or another software program to create a RACI chart.

Step 4: Fill in each box with the corresponding R, A, C, and I to designate the role of
each person for every task.
🞂 For the client approval milestone in the aforementioned website building example, the

project manager would be responsible for getting the client’s approval, the executive
sponsor would be accountable, and the developer needs to be informed of the outcome.
Step 5: Discuss, analyze, and get approval from the project team.
🞂 To take our example again, it’s possible the executive sponsor wants to be the person

who meets with the clients to get their approval, hence they would be responsible for this
task.
Step 6: Provide everyone a copy. You can just email the file out to everyone.
Hoshin Planning
🞂 The Hoshin Planning approach aligns your strategic goals with your projects
 and tasks to ensure that efforts are coordinated. This strategic management
model is less focused on measures and more on goals and initiatives.

🞂 Some sources cite up to seven steps in the Hoshin Planning model, but the four
most critical are:
🞂 Identify key goals. Ideally you’d focus on three to five goals.

🞂 Play “catchball.” Share goals from top to bottom of your organization to

obtain buy-in.
🞂 Gather intel through “gemba.” Track the execution of your key goals and

gather feedback from employees, using a defined process.

🞂 Make adjustments. Initiate change based on feedback and repeat the steps of

catchball and gemba.

🞂 You visualize your objectives, measures and targets, measure programs, and
action items in a Hoshin Planning matrix. Four directional quadrants (north,
south, east, west) inform each other and demonstrate alignment.
🞂 Step 1. Establish Organizational Vision
🞂 What is your current state with respect to your vision, business planning processes

and execution engine?

🞂 What policies and procedures are already in place to create and deploy objectives?
🞂 What is the organizational structure and daily management system?
🞂 What are the current long-term plans?
🞂 What are your existing vision and mission statements?

🞂 Step 2. Develop Breakthrough Objectives

🞂 The four quadrants of growth
🞂 Breakthrough objectives are significant improvements that require your organization

to stretch itself and will take three to five years to achieve. To develop these, we apply
a variety of tools to identify growth opportunities, including the four quadrants of
growth, which is an adaptation of the Ansoff Matrix. Using this model, we consider
consumers and non-consumers—those who are currently using your product or
service and those who aren’t—against current jobs and new jobs in order to outline
stretch objectives in each area.
🞂 Step 3. Develop Annual Objectives
🞂 What will you need to achieve this year in order to reach those three- to five-year

breakthrough objectives? For example, if the breakthrough objective is to “achieve

industry leading closing time,” then an annual objective might be “98 percent of loans
closed in 30 days.”
🞂Step 4. Deploy Annual Objectives
🞂 How do you turn those breakthrough objectives into workable targets and objectives at the departmental level? First,
we develop top-level improvement priorities and then apply metrics to them. Next, we create business-specific second-
and third-level targets to improve that tie directly to the top-level priorities. Basically, we’re cascading down to create
complete alignment throughout the entire organization. Each level goes down into more and more detail to where
you’re seeing the product or shipping it. This alignment keeps people focused and integrates different departments,
making sure everything across the entire company aligns back up to the strategic objectives.

🞂The Hoshin Planning Matrix, or X matrix, captures the objectives and cascading priorities. Other tools, such as
detailed action plans, summary reports and value stream maps, also help in identifying improvement opportunities and
managing progress toward achieving goals.
🞂The Hoshin Planning X-Matrix

🞂Step 5. Implement Annual Objectives

🞂This is where improvements are executed, using the most appropriate problem solving approach. The Lean Methods

Group’s five-step methodology for executing Kaizen events—SCORE (Select, Clarify, Organize, Run, Evaluate)—
provides an excellent framework for getting teams together to make improvements. The SCORE methodology is
featured in A Team Leader’s Guide to Lean Kaizen Events. In addition to SCORE events, other problem solving
approaches might include innovation projects, capital improvement projects, Lean Six Sigma DMAIC projects and
just-do-its.

🞂Step 6. Monthly Review

🞂How successful is the organization in meeting the action plan deliverables? What corrective actions are needed for

those that are behind? A monthly review fosters a culture of accountability and action by reviewing progress toward
achieving annual improvement objectives.

🞂Step 7. Annual Review

🞂At the end of the annual cycle, a thorough review of the year’s objectives shows how far ahead or behind the

organization is against the stated objectives and what adjustments must be made to the next cy
Issue-Based Strategic Planning
🞂 The issue-based strategic model is oriented in the present and

projects into the future. It aims to identify the major challenges

your organization faces now—in other words, you start with the
problems to iron out issues before expanding, shifting your
strategy, etc. This is typically a short-term (6-12 months),
internally-focused process. Issue-based planning is ideal for
young or resource-restricted organizations.

🞂 The leadership team or stakeholders identify the major issues and

goals as a first step. Next, your organization will create action
plans to address the issues, including budget allocation. From
there, you will execute and track progress. After an issues-based
plan has been implemented and the major issues you identified
are resolved, then your organization might consider shifting to a
broader, more complex strategic management model.
🞂 Goal-Based Strategic Planning

🞂 Goal-based strategic planning is the reverse of issue-based.

This approach works backward from the future to the present.
It all starts with your organization’s vision.

🞂 By nature, vision statements are aspirational and forward-

thinking, but they need specifics in order to be realized. Goal-
based planning tackles that challenge by setting measurable
goals that align with your vision and strategic plan. Next, you
define time frames for goal achievement. This is a long-term
strategic planning tool, so goal time frames are typically about
three to five years. From there, stakeholders will create action
plans for each goal and begin tracking and measuring progress.
Alignment Strategic Planning Model
🞂 Similar to issue-based planning, the alignment model focuses

on first looking internally to develop a strategy. This model is

designed to sync the organization’s internal operations with its
strategic goals.

🞂 Your strategic planning will start by identifying a goal and

analyzing which operations or resources need to be aligned with
that goal. Then you’ll identify which parts of operations are
working well and which are not, brainstorming ideas from the
successful aspects on how to address problems. Finally, you’ll
create a series of proposed changes to operations or processes to
achieve goals that will create the desired strategic alignment.
The alignment strategic planning model is particularly useful
when a company needs to refine its objectives or address
ongoing challenges or inefficiencies that are blocking progress.
🞂 Organic Model Of Strategic Planning

🞂 The organic model takes an unconventional approach because it focuses on the organization’s

vision and values, versus plans and processes. With this model, a company uses “natural,” self-
organizing systems that originate from its values and then leverages its own resources to achieve
goals, conserve funds, and operate effectively.

In the simplest form, there are three basic steps to follow when implementing the organic model of
strategic planning:
🞂 Stakeholders clarify vision and values. This is a collaborative process that could involve both

external and internal stakeholders—who’s in the meeting depends entirely on your organization’s
ultimate purpose for the planning. The goal is to establish common visions and values for all
stakeholders.
🞂 Stakeholders create personal action plans. The unconventional aspect of this model comes into

play here. Divided into small groups, stakeholders determine the actions and responsibilities for
each person to work toward the vision (according to the values).
🞂 Stakeholders report results of action plans. Each person will take ownership of their plan and

update the group on their progress. This is a communal approach to accountability and the
progress reported can lean toward qualitative, versus quantitative, results.

What type of company would the organic strategic planning model work best for? If your
organization has a large, diverse group of stakeholders that need to find common ground, a vision
that will take a long time to achieve, and a strong strategic emphasis on vision and values (instead
of structure and procedures), this may be the right model for you. It would also be beneficial for
younger organizations that need to gain funding without presenting a formal strategic plan.
 Real-Time Strategic Planning
🞂 Similar to the organic model, real-time strategic planning is a fluid,

nontraditional system. It’s primarily used by organizations that need to be more

reactive, and perform strategic planning in “real time.” For these companies,
detailed, long-term plans tend to become irrelevant within the typical three- to
five-year planning cycle because the environment they operate in rapidly changes.
Many nonprofits use this model—for example, a disaster relief agency needs the
ability to respond quickly and adapt its strategy to immediately address a crisis.
🞂 Real-time strategic planning involves three levels of strategy: organizational,

programmatic, and operational. For the first level, you’ll define the organization’s
mission, vision, market position, competitors, trends, etc. Then, the programmatic
strategy requires research into the external environment to identify approaches and
offerings that would help the organization achieve its mission. The research should
cover opportunities, threats, competitive advantages, and other points to spur
strategic brainstorming.
🞂 The final operational level analyzes internal processes, systems, and personnel to

develop a strategy that addresses “in-house” strengths and weaknesses. Looking at

all three levels as a whole, strategy leaders can form criteria for developing,
testing, implementing, and adapting strategies on an ongoing basis, allowing for
quick and thoughtful responses when needed.
 Stakeholders

How many plans should be prepared?

🞂 Education sector plans (ESP’s), like development plans, may be of

varying duration. In some cases plans can be long-term, medium-term
and short-term however there is no standard length for each of these
categories. The long-term, or perspective plans, which cover a period of
roughly 10-15 years, are less specific and indicate broad directions of
development. The medium-term plans (which generally cover a period
of around five years) are more specific in their programs and strategies.
Short-term plans, or annual plans, are usually for one year and are
linked to the budget cycles. They are also called operational plans.
Most education plans are medium-term plans with specific objectives,
targets and programs. These plans may have a long-term perspective.
Medium-term plans are translated into annual plans and budgets. The
way ESPs are conceived determines the process of plan preparation.
Who prepares the ESP?
🞂The plan preparation process needs to be done in
consultation with various actors to make the plan
realistic and allow for its successful implementation. It
is essential that the Department of Education be
involved to lead the process.
🞂National
🞂Regional
🞂Division
🞂District
🞂School Level
Who should lead the plan preparation process?
🞂 At times, the planning units of the DepEd take the lead. Sometimes
the MOE leads the process and nominates a committee of experts to
lead the plan preparation process.
🞂 In several instances, ESPs are prepared by national teams constituted
by the government and consisting of elected representatives, experts,
Non-Government Organisations (NGOs), international development
partners, etc.
🞂 What needs to be ensured is that the plan preparation team works in
close alliance with the stakeholders and facilitates wider participation
to ensure ownership and implementation of the plan. This may make
the team large and difficult to manage. A large team may be desirable
but may not always be helpful to move fast. Therefore, a good
system is to have a large team for consultation and
guidance, but a small and a viable team for facilitating the
process of consultation and drafting of the document.
 POLICY & PLANNING

Policy
🞂 Policy is a statement of aims, purposes, principles or intentions, which serve as

continuing guidelines for management in accomplishing objectives .

Philosophy
🞂 Philosophy is the science that seeks to organize and systematize all fields of

knowledge as a means of understanding and interpreting the totality of reality,

usually regarded as comprising ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics and epistemology.

Vision
🞂 Vision is something which is apparently seen otherwise than by ordinary sight. The

action or fact of seeing or contemplating something not actually present to the eye;
mystical or supernatural in sight or foresight.22 Vision is to articulate the purposes
of an organization into idioms and goals.
🞂Education. According to Mahatma Gandhi,
"Education is an all round drawing out of the best in
the child and man - body, mind and spirit". However,
for the purpose of educational statistics, education,
according to UNESCO, “is understood to involve,
organized and sustained communication designed to
bring about learning”.
🞂 Organized: means planned in a pattern or sequence with explicit or
implicit aims. It involves a providing agency (person or persons or
body), which sets up the learning environment and a method of teaching
through which the communication is organized. The method is typically
the one that is engaged in communicating or releasing knowledge and
skills with a view to bringing about learning. It can also be indirect or
inanimate, e.g. a piece of computer software, a film or tape, etc.
🞂 Sustained: means that the learning experience has the elements of

duration and continuity. No minimum duration has been stipulated. The

appropriate minima differ from course to course and program to
program.
🞂 Communication: Communication is a relationship between two or more

persons involving the transfer of information in the form of messages,

ideas, knowledge, strategies, skills etc. Communication may be verbal or
non-verbal, direct/face to face, or indirect/remote, and may involve a
wide variety of channels and media.
🞂 Learning: Learning is any improvement in behavior, information,

knowledge, understanding, attitude, values, skills etc.

🞂 Training .Training is learning experience that leads to the acquisition
of a skill2
🞂 Culture3

🞂 `Culture comprises values, beliefs, customs, behaviors, institutions

and artifacts of a group of people or of a nation

🞂 Concept

🞂 ‘Concept is an idea or representation of the common element or

attribute by which groups or classes may be distinguished;

🞂 Compulsory Education

🞂 Compulsory Education refers to the number of years or the age-span

during which children and youth are legally obliged to attend school
for a specified number of years.5
🞂 Basic Education
🞂 Basic Education refers to a whole range of educational activities that

takes place in different settings and that aims to meet basic learning
needs as defined in the World Declaration on Education For All
Education System
🞂 Education System is the overall network of institutions and programs through which education of all
types and all levels is provided to the population. 5
8. Comparative Education
🞂 The study of educational systems of different countries is defined as comparative education.
🞂 ‘Comparative Education’ and `International Education’ are often confused. The former refers to a field

of study that applies historical, philosophical and social sciences theories and methods to international
problems in education. Its equivalents in other fields of academic study are those dedicated to the trans-
societal study of other social institutions, such as comparative government, comparative economics, and
comparative religions. Comparative education is primarily an academic and inter-disciplinary pursuit.” 8
9. General Education
🞂 General Education is mainly designed to lead participants to a deeper understanding of a subject or

group of subjects, especially, but not necessarily, with a view to preparing participants for further
(additional) education at the same or a higher level. Successful completion of these programs may or
may not provide the participants with a labor-market relevant qualification at this level.
🞂 Knowledge: Knowledge is the aggregate of facts, information and principles that an individual has

acquired through learning and experience; formal education seeks to raise levels of knowledge
systematically.10
🞂 Intelligence: Psychologically, there are different technical meanings of intelligence, such as verbal

reasoning, quantitative thinking, abstract analysis etc. but intelligence in popular understanding is
mental abilities enabling one to think rationally, learn readily, act purposefully and deal effectively with
one’s environment. 10
🞂 Conscience: Conscience is moral sense of right and wrong. `A faculty developed at home and in school
from early childhood, functioning as the center of awareness for an individual’s moral and ethical
beliefs; similar in some respects to what Freudian psychoanalytic theory terms as superego.’ 10
🞂 Vocational Education is designed mainly to lead participants
to acquire the practical skills, know-how and understanding
necessary for employment in a particular occupation or
trade or class of occupations or trades. Successful
completion of such programs can lead, but not necessarily to
a labor-market relevant vocational qualification recognized
by the competent authorities in the country, like Ministry of
Labor & Employment, Education etc.
11. Professional Education
🞂 Professional Education is all that education which has direct

value as preparation for professional calling or employment

in life. It is differentiated, on the one hand, from vocational
education which relates to those employments of social
grades not recognized as profession and,
🞂 on the other hand, from the general or so called `liberal’ education which has no specific practical
application in view.12
12. Inclusive Education
🞂 Inclusive Education means that all students (disabled and non-disabled children and young people) in a

school/college study together, regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area and become part of
the school/college community.13
3. Recurrent Education
🞂 Recurrent Education is an approach that rejects the concept of education as a preparatory front and/or

apprenticeship process at the beginning of working life but seeks to make learning experience available
flexibly throughout a person’s life according to choice, interests, career, social and economic and job
relevance. It has points in common with adult education, continuing education, permanent in-service
training and life long education but places emphasis on ready availability and access on relevance to
individual needs and on an autonomous learner situation. Recurrent education calls for a radical
reshaping of the educational system rather than the mere provisions of second chance institutions.
14. Tertiary Education
🞂 Tertiary Education is that education which follows the completion of secondary education or its

equivalent. Thus, tertiary education includes higher education and the more-advanced parts of further
education though the term is more often used in the UK in a sense excluding higher education.14
🞂 15. Technical Education
🞂 Technical Education designed at upper secondary and lower tertiary levels to prepare middle level

persons (technicians, middle management etc.) and at University level to prepare engineers and
technologists for higher management positions. Technical education includes general education,
theoretical, scientific and technical studies and related skill training. The component of technical
education may vary considerably depending on the types of personnel to be prepared and the education
level.
Formal Education
🞂 Formal Education refers to intentionally organized full time learning events with fixed duration and

schedule, structural hierarchy with chronological succession of levels and grades, admission
requirements and formal registration; catering mainly to the population of 5-25 years old, which are
held within established educational institutions and use predetermined pedagogical organization,
contents, methods and teaching/learning materials. 15
17. Educational Innovation
🞂 Educational Innovation refers to an idea or practice new to a specific educational context that meets

specified needs. It is the introduction or promotion of new ideas and methods that are devised in
education or school practices which have a substantial effect on changing the existing patterns of
behaviour of a group or groups involved. Innovative strategies imply the development of new ideas
which are disseminated and utilized; these usually occur in response to particular problems. 16
8. Educational Program
🞂 Educational Program is a set of organized and purposeful learning experiences with a minimum

duration of one school or academic year, usually offered in an educational institution. 17

19. Course
🞂 A course is a planned series of learning experiences in a particular range of subjects or skills, offered

by an institution and undertaken by one or more learners.17

20. Data
🞂 Data is the plural form of datum. A datum results from the reduction of information to a single

recorded unit. For instance, ‘Radha is 16 years old’ can be reduced to age, sex or both, depending on
what is of interest to us. The only requirement is to classify into meaningful and mutually exclusive
categories. Data collection is the process of allocating to categories and counting and data thus
collected are presented as a data matrix. This matrix can have any number of dimensions.
🞂 POLICY & PLANNING
🞂 29. Policy
🞂 Policy is a statement of aims, purposes, principles or intentions, which serve as continuing guidelines for management in accomplishing objectives20.
🞂 30. Philosophy
🞂 Philosophy is the science that seeks to organize and systematize all fields of knowledge as a means of understanding and interpreting the totality of
🞂 20 International Directory of Management (III Edition), by Hano Johannsen & T. Gerry Page, 1986. A Guidebook 9
🞂 reality, usually regarded as comprising ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics and epistemology.21
🞂 31. Vision
🞂 `Vision is something which is apparently seen otherwise than by ordinary sight. The action or fact of seeing or contemplating something not actually present to the eye;

mystical or supernatural in sight or foresight.22 Vision is to articulate the purposes of an organization into idioms and goals.
🞂 32. Planning
🞂 Planning is the formal process of making decisions for the future of individuals and organizations. Planning involves dealing on aims and objectives, selecting to correct

strategies and program to achieve the aims, determining and allocating the resources required and ensuring that plans are communicated to all concerned. Plans are
statement of things to be done and the sequence and timing in which they should be done in order to achieve a given end.20
🞂 33. Types of Planning
🞂 There are two basic kinds of planning: strategic and operational. Strategic planning, also known as long range, comprehensive, integrated, overall and managerial planning,

has three dimensions: the identification and examination of future opportunities, threats and consequences; the process of analyzing an organization’s environment and
developing compatible objectives along with the appropriate strategies with policies capable of achieving those objectives; and the integration of the various elements of
planning into an overall structure of plans so that each unit of the organization knows in advance what must be done when and by whom. Operational planning, also known
as divisional planning, is concerned with the implementation of the larger goals and strategies that have been determined by strategic planning; it is also concerned with
improving current operations and with the allocation of resources through the operating budget23.
🞂 33.1 Macro Planning: Macro Planning deals with broad entities having such large magnitude, aggregates, and averages as National Income, Per
🞂 21 Dictionary of Education, by Carter V. Good & W R Markel, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc, New York, London.
🞂 22 Oxford English Dictionary (Vol. XII). Clavendon Press, London, 1970.
🞂 23 Directory of Education, Vol.2, by (General Editor) Prof S.K. Singh. Commonwealth Publishers, Delhi. 10 Concepts and Terms in Educational Planning
🞂 Capita Income, National Expenditure on consumption and income; Balance of Trade and Balance of Payment, National Population, Total Enrolment, Enrolment Ratios,

Age Structure etc. Thus, macro-planning deals with broad plans not taking note of breakdowns between skills or scheme implementation at grass root level.
🞂 33.2 Micro-Planning: As against macro theory, micro economic theory analyses consumption and investment of households, prices of particular goods, output, sales and

purchase decisions of individual firms and industries. Micro-Planning in education starts from grass root level. For instance, the head of an institution has to plan how best
he/she should bring all the children to school in his/her area. Here planning at the village level has to be done. How best individual schools can bring and retain all the
children in schools; how schools in individual habitations can be provided; and whether eligible students are getting their scholarships on time.
🞂 33.3 Decentralised Planning: Decentralization implies distribution of administrative powers and functions among local constituents. Decentralized planning means to

confer the authority of planning for the local development. The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments have placed the primary education under the control of Panchayati
Raj institutions. Under the decentralized planning model, all local units prepare their plans after due consultations with their people and analysis of the strengths and
weaknesses of the planning area. These local level plans are then coordinated and summated to make the district plan by taking into account the availability of the physical
and financial resources. Apart from this, in India the Government have also delegated financial and administrative powers to the heads of educational institutions to which
budget is also allocated for being spent by them according to their requirements. Such financial delegations are available in the general Financial Rules. The administrative
powers are delegated according to the provisions contained in the state Education Code of each state.
🞂 33.4 Many times decentralization is viewed as something opposite to centralization. In the socialist countries, the concept of centralized planning was practised as the

central authority did all planning. These plans were then passed on to the grassroots for implementation.
Rolling Plan: A long-term plan that is revised regularly and each revision is projected forward again for
the same period as the original plan.24 Thus, a three-year Rolling Plan might be revised each year so that
at the end of year one the plan is revised and fresh projections made to the end of the year four.

Strategic Planning: The managerial process of developing and maintaining a viable link between the
organization’s objectives and resources and its environmental opportunities.

Contingency Planning: A planning technique, which determines actions to be taken by individuals and
groups at specific places and times if abnormal threats or opportunities arise.

Corporate Planning: A technique, which aims to integrate all the planning activities of a company and
relate them to the best overall objectives for the company.
Manpower Planning: A generic term for those techniques used to arrive at a specification of any aspect
of future manpower requirement, deployment or development needs. 26 Manpower planning has been an
important feature of centralized planning in socialist countries. The Government of India has established
a specialized institute to undertake manpower planning exercises in the Indian context.

Process Planning: Determining how the product or part should be manufactured by referring to the
component and assembly drawings and
🞂 􀂃 drafting an operation sequence for each component;

🞂 􀂃 deciding the machines or hand tools to be used;

🞂 􀂃 drawing up the manufacturing layout for each component and sub-assembly, the departments and

type of labor to perform the operations and specifying the tools, fixtures and gauges to be used.
Indicative Planning: Indicative Planning is planning by agreement and indication of desirable targets
rather than by compulsion or decree. It is also known as Participative Planning.