S-CHAPTER 15

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION, CROSS-TABULATION, AND

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Means of Quantitative Research (QR) begin from Chapter 15.

- However, the discussion of building blocks of QR started
long before (from Ch 6).
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Synopsis: Chapter 15
• 1. Frequency Distribution
• - Distribution, Cumulative Frequency Distribution (p.449)
• - Histogram, F/polygon, Ogive (p.450)

• 2. Statistics Associated with FD (p. 451)

• (a) Measures of Location (Central Tendency):
• Mean, Median, Mode, Geometric Mean, Harmonic Mean,
• Quadratic Mean.
• (b) Measures of Variation:
• Mean Deviation, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variation
• (c) Measures of Shape:
• Skewness, Kurtosis and Moments

• 3. General Procedure for Hypothsis Testing (p.455)

• - There are 8 steps
 3.GENERALPROCEDUREFORHYPOTHESISTESTINGContd. (p.433)
3

1. Formulate the null hypothesis, Ho and the alternative hypothesis, H1.

2. Select an appropriate statistical technique and the corresponding test statistic.
- Normal test, t-test, Chi square test, F-test , etc.
3. Choose the level of significance,  (95%, 99%, etc.).
4. Determine the sample size (n) and collect data and calculate the value of the
test statistic.
5. Determine the probability associated with the test statistic under the Ho using
the sampling distribution of the test statistic.
OR
Determine the critical values associated with the test statistic that divide the
rejection regions.
6. Compare the probability associated with the test statistic with the level of
significance specified.
OR
Determine whether the test statistic has fallen into the rejection or non-rejection
region.
7. Make the statistical decision to reject or not reject the null hypotheses.
8. Express the statistical decision, conclusion, in terms of the research problem.
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• 4. Classification of Hypothesis Testing Procedure (a) Tests of Association

• (b) Tests of Difference
• 5. Cross Tabulation (CT) (p. 459): (a) 2 Variables (p.460)
• (b) 3 Variables (p.461)
• 6. Problems of 2-way CT Fig 15.7: (a) Refine an initial Relationship
• (b) Initial Relationship was Spurious
• (c) Reveal Suppressed Association
• (d) No Change in Initial Relationship
• 7. Statistics associated with CT (p. 464):
• (a) Chi square -statistic.
• (b) Phi Correlation Coefficient
• (c) Contingency Coefficient
• (d) Cramer’s V
• (e) Lambda Coefficient
• 8. Hypothesis Testing regarding Differences Fig 15.9(p. 469):

• (a) Parametric Tests: (i) One sample: t & z tests (p. 470)
• (ii) Two samples: Independents samples &
• Related samples.
• (b) Non-parametric Tests (P. 475)