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Study Skills for Criminology

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 STUDY SKILLS FOR CRIMINOLOGY
Nerida Chazal & Rhiannon Bandiera

Introduction

Learning and understanding new material - theories, approaches, ideas, and facts - is a large part
of studying at university. Another, almost equally important aspect of study is learning how to
communicate your ideas in an effective, persuasive and compelling manner. Learning to
research, write well and respond to all the requirements of an assignment are crucial skills that a
student must master. Yet, too often little time or thought is given to building proficiency in study
and writing skills as students, understandably, grapple with complex and challenging new
material.

In this chapter we provide you with the information and tools you need to develop your study
and writing skills. Because each university and topic is different, we discuss a set of skills that
you can apply to many forms assessment, from essays, to exams and reports. We group these
skills as:

 understanding assessment and planning work;

 researching effectively;
 thinking critically;
 arguing persuasively; and
 writing clearly.

Throughout the chapter we use an example of a criminological essay question to practically

demonstrate these skills to you. Essays are one of the most universal pieces of assessment and
most criminology topics will require you to write one. However, the skills we describe are also
transferable, so we will explain how they can be applied to different types of assessment 1.

1. Understanding Assessment and Planning Work

Before you begin your assignment it is important to step back and consider the assessment’s
requirements. Taking time to reflect on the assessment structure or assignment question will help
to ensure that you understand what is being asked of you, enabling you to address all of the
necessary components of the question or task.

Managing Assignments

1We have used mock sources in our in-text examples to demonstrate how to reference. Citations referring to Smith,
Jones, Harvey, Clarke and Fells, and the National Crime Office are mock sources. All other sources are real.

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At the start of each semester, you should familiarise yourself with the assessment structure for
each of your topics. Read through the required material that provides foundation information on
the topic. Examine each piece of assessment and note the due dates in your calendar. Consider
where each piece of assessment fits within the broader assessment structure of the topic. Ask
yourself: How much weight is placed on each assignment? How much time should I spend on
this piece of assessment? The weighting of a piece of assessment is a good indication of the time
you should dedicate to it. For instance, you should not spend most of the semester completing a
report which is only worth 10% of your final grade, but you should dedicate plenty of time to a
research essay worth 60%.

Understanding What Are Markers Looking For

Often there are explicit instructions or comments detailing what markers are looking for in the
assessment description. The mark sheet, if available, will also list the individual criteria which
the maker will use to assess your work. When marking your assignment, markers will generally
look for the following:

 A strong knowledge and understanding of the material

This is demonstrated by: your correct use of core ideas and theories; your ability to
engage with key authors and theorists; and your explanation of concepts.
 Critical thinking and the development of an argument in response to the question
Most assignments require you to go beyond parroting back the facts and theories that you
have heard in a lecture or read in the textbook. They require you to engage with the
material in a critical manner and form your own, well informed perspective on the issue.
This may be different in short-answer or multiple choice exam questions which require
you to describe facts or theories you have learned.
 A clear, legible piece of work
Expression is important. Correct spelling and grammar will make your work
easier to
read and demonstrate that you have put time and effort into your assignment.
Assignments
Evidence ofwill often ask
research oryou to go reading
broader beyond the set texts for a topic. Locating the
subject of your assignment within a broader context is always valuable, and doing this
requires further reading, if not focused research.
 Correct referencing
Make sure your avoid plagiarism by referencing the sources from which you gathered
your information.

Picking a Question

Picking the question or topic you would like to discuss on your assignment is the first stage of
the planning and writing process. ‘Thinking early leads to starting early’ (Baker, Brizee &
Velázquez 2016, p. 29), so begin deciding which question or topic you would like to discuss as

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 soon as you are given an assignment. If you have been given an assignment but are yet to start,
make a resolution to do so as soon as possible. (That is, not in the 3 or 4 days before it is due.
The “last minute” essay has the hallmarks of poor quality written all over it [pun intended]).

For most assignments, you will be provided with a list of questions or topics which you will need
to choose from. You will need to read through each of the potential options and make an
informed decision about which of the questions you will choose to take on. On some occasions,
you may be given the opportunity to come up with your own topic or research question. In this
case, it is important that you discuss your topic or research question with your topic coordinator
or tutor prior to starting your assignment.

Dealing with Choice Anxiety

Indecisiveness in the face of multiple options can lead to “choice anxiety” - “I like question 1,
but I could also do a really good job of answering question 3”. It’s best to leave “choice anxiety”
to the confectionary aisle (where it truly belongs!) Reduce stress by limiting your number of
choices: strike those options you do not like from the list; identify those options which interest
you most; determine the requirements for each option and factor these into your decision; and
consider each option with respect to your strengths and abilities (i.e. the degree of difficulty,
your prior knowledge of the topic, your skills etc). Your ability to be decisive in choosing a
research question is vital, especially in an essay exam situation where indecision can chew up
precious time, energy and brain power.

It is also important to be confident in your decision. Do not abandon your question and tackle a
different one once you have started your assignment - you have already put considerable time
and effort in developing your knowledge in this area, do not let it go to waste. It takes time and
practice to become experienced about a topic (Baker et al. 2016). Each person will also approach
a question differently, so do not be worried if another student has chosen to look at a question in
different way.

Interpreting Questions

Correctly interpreting the question you have chosen to address is one of the most important
aspects of undertaking an assignment. Even if you construct a well-researched and written
assignment, if you do not answer the question or respond to the assessment criteria you risk
being awarded a fail grade. Often students forget to answer aspects of the question because it
contains several different parts. Breaking down the question will help you to address the whole
question, determine which material is relevant and structure your response.

It is important to break down the question or task when you begin any assignment - even in an
exam situation where time is limited. Spending just a few minutes breaking down the question
could make a substantial difference to your overall grade. There are several steps that you can

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 take to ensure that you understand what is being asked of you. To demonstrate this we use the
following essay question as a real-life example:

ESSAY QUESTION EXAMPLE:

Select two situational crime prevention initiatives designed to reduce alcohol-fuelled violence
and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in comparison to social crime prevention techniques.

The first step is to identify what actions we need to take to answer this question. The words
italicised below are action words, they tell us what we need to do.

Select two situational crime prevention initiatives designed to reduce alcohol-fuelled violence
and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in comparison to social crime prevention
techniques.

Already we can see that there are three tasks that we will need to complete to answer this
question, we need to select, evaluate and compare. Next we must determine what we are
selecting, evaluating and comparing. The ‘what’ is indicated in bold text below.

Select TWO situational crime prevention initiatives designed to reduce alcohol-fuelled

violence and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in comparison to social crime
prevention techniques.

What we need to do:

 Select TWO situational crime prevention initiatives.

 Evaluate their strengths and weaknesses.
 Compare (strengths and weaknesses) with social crime prevention techniques.

The question indicates that we must select two situational crime prevention initiatives. Next we
must evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each of the initiatives. Finally, we need to
compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of each situational crime prevention
technique with social crime prevention techniques. All of the aspects that we have identified
must be answered in connection with the overall subject of the question: reducing alcohol
fuelled violence. The question is prompting you to apply what you have learned in class to a real
life situation, putting theory into practice.

As you can see, it is easy to miss certain aspects of the question if you do not spend time
breaking it apart.

Planning and Brainstorming Your Response

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Now that you have a clearer understanding of what the question demands, it is time to plan out
your assignment to ensure that it clearly and logically responds to all of the requirements of the
question. There are several ways that you can do this. We share two forms of planning: mind
mapping and essay skeletons in the dialogue boxes below. Additionally, at the end of this chapter
we have provided you with an essay brainstorming and planning worksheet that helps you
formulate a strong essay plan.

DIALOGUE BOX 1: MIND MAPPING

Mind maps help you to think creatively about a subject. For students who like to work visually
and organically, mind mapping is a great way to get your ideas on paper and plan your
assignment. Mind mapping involves writing down a central concept and thinking about how new
ideas relate to this concept. By focusing on key ideas and looking for branches and connections
between those ideas, you are mapping out your knowledge of the topic and helping to organize
your thoughts.
How to create a mind map:

 Write the main idea in the centre;

 Write key ideas radiating around the centre;
 Draw quickly without judging or editing;
 Get everything you are thinking onto the page;
 Look for relationships between points;
 Leave lots of space so that you can add to your mind map.

Here is an initial mind map based on our essay question introduced above.

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 It may eventually evolve into something like this:

DIALOGUE BOX 2: ESSAY SKELETONS

Essay skeletons are another option for students who prefer to work in a more linear manner.
These skeletons are like mind maps except the headings and sub-headings are arranged in a
sequential order - usually in the same way you would outline and write your essay.

How to create an essay skeleton:

 Create an essay outline with headings, subheadings and bullet points;

 Continue adding to your skeleton until it reaches “bursting point” - the point at
which it is saturated with information and points converted into whole sentences
and paragraphs.

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Your first essay skeleton will demonstrate areas of your paper that need further research. The
skeleton will grow as you add more information, so try not to write full sentences or
paragraphs on your first attempt. Start with words or phrases, and then build up to sentences
and paragraphs as you progress in your research. When you find a good point or a sentence (in
a journal article or book for example) make a note of it, copying and pasting it into your essay
skeleton under the appropriate heading with the in-text citation in place.

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This type of planning not only helps to develop the overall structure to your essay, it can also
help prevent you from straying off topic. Essay skeletons are also a useful way of studying for
short and long answer exams. Develop an essay skeleton for a practice exam question. Once
completed, try writing out your entire skeleton from memory. Those sections of the skeleton
that you forget are likely to be the aspects of the topic you are less familiar with and that
require more study. Continue to practice writing out your skeleton from memory. You should
find that you are able to recall and write a more detailed skeleton the more you practice.

What a minute, planning is not for me!

Everybody works differently. If your current approach to planning your assignments has proven
effective, then continue to use it. You may find it easier to conduct some initial research before
you begin planning. Or you may begin by writing down everything you know about the subject
and then give this draft some structure by formulating a plan. The important point is to think
about your assignment in its entirety and look at an outline of what you have included to ensure
that it is clear, comprehensive, and well-structured (more on structure under Section 4: Arguing
Persuasively). Students who give thought to and plan the overall structure of their work often

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 present more polished and analytical assignments that respond to the question in a more well-
developed and nuanced manner.

2. Researching Effectively

Good research skills are essential to the success of any assignment you produce at university. An
excellent assignment will provide the marker with evidence that the student has sufficiently
researched the topic. Research is not just demonstrated in the number or range of resources you
use, but also by how well a student conveys their understanding of the topic. A well-researched
assignment does not venture off topic, uses key terms correctly, and applies theory accurately. In
the context of an exam, ‘research’ skills are demonstrated by how well a student knows the topic
material.

How much research is enough research?

This is a question that has plagued many lecturers and tutors over the years. There is no decisive
answer to this question. A good indication of when you may have done enough research and are
ready to begin writing, is when you are able to summarise some of the key concepts, ideas or
themes in your own words. It may take longer for some students to reach this point in their
research than others. If a topic is new to you or is multi-facetted, you may have to read a number
of different sources before you understand the subject area.

How to conduct good research

It is important that you read widely to expose yourself to a range of arguments on the subject you
are researching. You must give yourself sufficient time to read widely and carry out your
research. There is no point leaving the research for your assignment until the week (or day!)
before your assignment is due. The best approach is to begin reading and writing as soon as you
become aware of the assignment and after choosing your research question. These initial efforts
do not need to be over-the-top; you could devote an hour a day to reading up on the subject or set
yourself the goal of finding one reputable source per week and creating a preliminary reference
list (Hay, Bochner & Dungey 2006).

Note that while it is important to read widely and deeply on a topic to improve your
understanding of the subject do not fall into the trap of spending too much time reading. This
will leave you with very little time to prepare and write your assignment. It is unrealistic to
expect that you can read and know everything about a subject. Therefore, there is a fine line
between conducting research and reading excessively.

Where to look

There are a range of reputable sources that you can use for your assignments including:
 Criminology textbooks (including this book);

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  Academic books and journals, accessible online or in physical print at your library;
 Newspaper articles;
 Reports & statistics from Government agencies (for example from the Australian Institute
of Criminology [AIC] or the Australian Federal Police);
 Media transcripts (e.g. Four Corners reports).

For a more comprehensive range of resources, see Chapter 28 of this book on national and
international resources.

DIALOGUE BOX 3: THE ULTIMATE SEARCH STRATEGY

It is difficult to know where to begin when embarking on research. Here are three different
resources that can use as a starting point for your research:

1. Your topic handbook, course outline or guide, which usually contains a list of further
readings for each topic.
2. The corresponding textbook chapter. Each chapter has a bibliography and a list of further
readings.
3. The first relevant academic resource you come across. This may be a journal article you
found on Google Scholar, a book from the library, or a report you found from a
government agency (for example you could look at the AIC website). Each of these
sources contains a reference list full of additional sources you can read.

By accessing these three resources you are exposing yourself to hundreds of potential sources.
For instance, if you were a first year student at Flinders University completing an assignment on
crime prevention strategies for alcohol fuelled violence you will find that reading just these three
sources has exposed you to around 190 additional sources.

As you find new facts, statistics, ideas or quotations immediately write them down in your plan.
Merely highlighting with a fluorescent highlighter the information that you want to remember in
an article you have photocopied or saved onto your computer is not a good way of keeping track
of information (even though every student who has ever lived swears by this method!)

What is Referencing?

For many students coming to university the concept of referencing is daunting. There are several
different types of referencing systems that you need to get your head around, including in-text
referencing and the use of footnotes. It is also difficult to know when to reference and to
understand why you need to reference at all. Referencing is a skill that becomes easier with
practice. To get a handle on when to reference it is useful to pay attention to how authors
reference in the academic texts you read.

Referencing is important for several reasons. It provides evidence of the research you have
conducted; it gives justification for your statements; and it consolidates your arguments and

10
gives them authority. Referencing allows the reader to follow your work by going back to the
original sources. Referencing is also about giving credit to other authors for the work they have
done and acknowledging their ideas and words. Think of each reference as evidence, evidence
that helps you to prove your point and demonstrates where you found your information.

SPOTLIGHT: WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?

Plagiarism is the use of another person’s work without appropriate acknowledgement. Some
universities refer to plagiarism in terms such as “academic integrity” or “academic dishonesty”.
It involves taking somebody’s words, ideas or research and presenting them as your own.
Plagiarism can arise from poor-note taking or a misunderstanding of referencing conventions,
meaning it may be unintentional; however, ignorance is not a defence or an excuse for
plagiarism. Ensure that you always attribute ideas, concepts and facts to the author whose work
you have read. Take care to include the source as you take notes when reading. If you have
directly quoted an author, place the quoted words in quotation marks. It is important to get into
good study habits to avoid plagiarism as it is a very serious offence and easily detectable by
software employed by most universities.

In-Text Referencing versus Footnotes

There are two types of referencing systems, in-text referencing systems (such as Harvard) and
footnote systems (such as the Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC)). Many criminological
publications use in-text referencing systems which involve a short citation (the author and the
date) in brackets in the main text and a full citation (including the title, publisher or source) in a
reference list or bibliography at the end of the document. The style that you will need to use on
your assignment should be outlined in the assessment requirements. If it is not specified in the
assessment requirements, it is best to ask your lecturer or tutor about the referencing conventions
of the topic.

Reference Lists versus Bibliographies

Whether you will need a reference list or bibliography for your assignment will depend on the
type of system you use. The majority of in-text referencing systems will require you to supply a
reference list at the end of your assignment - a list which contains only those sources you have
referred to and cited directly in-text. However, some systems may require you to provide a
bibliography instead of a reference list. Bibliographies are different in that they contain a list of
all the sources you cite in-text, as well as those sources you consulted but did not cite directly in-
text. Footnote systems, which contain a full citation in a note at the bottom of the page, often do
not require a bibliography or reference list (although this can vary depending on the conventions
of the specific style).

It is therefore important that you familiarise yourself with the system that is required in each of
your topics. You do not need to learn the particularities of each system by heart (there are many

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minor differences between each of the referencing systems). Instead, find guides to the systems
that you need to use and refer to these guides as you complete your assignments. You can locate
many good guides to referencing systems online, on your university’s website, or in the library.
Pay attention to and copy the style dictated by the guides. Note how punctuation is used, how
italics are used, and the order in which bibliographic information is placed.

How to use In-text Citations

Where you place a citation is the same no matter what system you are using. Citations are placed
either at the end of a sentence or at the end of the clause/phrase the reference relates to. For in-
text referencing systems and some footnoting systems the citation appears before the punctuation
mark.

Broken windows theory best applies to this situation (Wilson & Kelling 1982).
The theory suggests that …

Broken windows theory best applies to this situation1. The theory suggests that
…
However, some footnoting systems will require you to place the notation after the punctuation
mark:

Broken windows theory best applies to this situation. 1 The theory suggests that
…
Hence why we stress the importance of consulting and adhering to an appropriate style guide.

If the citation refers to only part of a sentence, it should be placed at the end of the clause or
phrase to which it relates:

This was demonstrated in the Safe and Clean Neighbourhoods Program (Wilson
& Kelling 1982), as well as in the current example.

OR

This was demonstrated in the Safe and Clean Neighbourhoods Program, 1 as well
as in the current example.

When using in-text referencing systems you can integrate the author’s surname into your
sentence, followed by the year of publication in parentheses:

Wilson and Kelling (1982) highlight that unless order is maintained…

When you cite a direct quotation using the in-text system (i.e. when you directly restate the
original words of the author), you must state the page number in-text:
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 Wilson and Kelling (1982, p.34) explain that ‘the essence of the police role in
maintaining order is to reinforce the informal control mechanisms of the
community itself’.
OR

According to Wilson and Kelling (1982, p. 34), ‘maintaining order is to reinforce

the informal control mechanisms of the community itself’.

Use direct quotations sparingly, and only when the quotation encapsulates the problem in a way
that is unique or difficult to summarise. Using too many direct quotations, or long direct
quotations, is not a good strategy as it does not demonstrate that you have understood and
interpreted the information you have read. It is imperative to always introduce or comment on
direct quotes to illustrate how they apply to your argument. Do not just include a large chunk of
text from another author for the reader to interpret.

Paraphrasing information is one way to avoid the pitfalls of directly quoting material.
Paraphrasing involves rewording a short passage from a particular source. The meaning of the
passage remains the same as the original text, but the wording is different because it is being
conveyed in your own style. Paraphrasing is also used when you reference certain facts, terms or
definitions. Because paraphrased information is found in a very specific place within the source,
you must cite the page number.

Wilson and Kelling (1982, p. 34) argue that order maintenance approaches can
only be successful when informal control mechanisms are strengthened at the
community level.

When summarising the overall content of the source (an idea that can be found throughout the
source and not just on a single line on a single page), you do not need to cite page numbers
because it is the entire work you are referring to.

Wilson and Kelling (1982) explain that police work involves some degree of
order maintenance in establishing social control, especially when ….

3. Thinking Critically

Being able to think about, assess and engage with many different and competing ideas and
theories is a foundational skill that you will learn at university. Scriven and Paul (1987; as cited
in National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking 2013, p. 3) describe critical thinking as:

the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualising, applying,

analysing, synthesising and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generalised by,

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 observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief or action [or
argument].

Critical thinking requires active thinking rather than passive acceptance of ideas, facts and
opinions that are presented to you. To begin thinking actively you need to question the material
that you hear and read. Do not just accept what you are told, but engage with the subject by
asking questions such as: Why? What? Where? How? When? How do you know that? So what?
How can you prove that? Can you be more specific? Why do I think this? Constantly reconsider
your beliefs based on new evidence (this is why research is so important) and suspend judgement
until you have sufficient evidence.

It is important to note that when we say ‘ask questions’ we mean ask questions of yourself.
Avoid simply posing rhetorical questions in your work. This is a trap a lot of students fall
into. Asking endless questions in an essay is not a demonstration of your critical thinking
abilities; in fact, it has the opposite effect, and can indicate laziness and a lack of research and in-
depth thinking. You must go some way towards answering the questions that you pose.

DIALOGUE BOX 4: THE QUALITIES OF CRITICAL THINKING

Below we discuss some of the qualities that you should consider when critically evaluating your
work (sourced from the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking 2013).

Clarity: If a statement appears vague or confusing you need to clarify it. Ask yourself: ‘Can I
elaborate on this point?’ ‘Are there any examples I could include’. ‘How could this be clearer?’

Accuracy: Statements can be clear but inaccurate. For example, if you say that ‘deterrence is
based on the notion of ‘an eye for an eye’ this statement is straightforward, but incorrect.

Precision: Statements can be clear and accurate, but not precise. Although you would be
correct in stating that ‘there is a high rate of imprisonment of Indigenous people’, a more
precise statement would state that ‘the Indigenous imprisonment rate is 22% of the overall
population’ (National Crime Office 2011). Note how the more precise statement is substantiated
by a reference/evidence.

Relevance: Always question how each point relates to the issue at hand. Take for example the
following two sentences: ‘Police perform a number of different roles in society. Police must use
their discretion in domestic violence situations’. Both are valid statements, but neither are
related to one another and the writing is therefore disjointed.

Depth: Statements lack depth when they fail to deal with the complexity of an issue. The
statement ‘people who commit crime should be punished severely’, for example, is a shallow
reading of the theories of punishment. You need to ask yourself questions such as: ‘Why do we
need discretion in sentencing?’ and ‘What should impact upon the severity of a sentence?’ Such
questions lead to a much deeper engagement with complex concepts.

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Breadth: An argument that considers only one point of view lacks breadth. For instance, you
could state that‘community corrections are the best form of punishment as they enable
individuals to reintegrate back into the community and maintain contact with their families’.
While this may be a valid argument, it does not consider the breadth of thinking on the aims of
punishment (rehabilitation is just one aim) and the varying perspectives on reintegration. For
example, is it beneficial for domestic violence offenders to maintain contact with their
families?’.

Logic: Logic is developed by thinking through the points you raise and developing a clear
structure for your work. When multiple thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in
combination, the thinking is logical. An example of an illogical argument is ‘prisons are a
strong form of incapacitation. Incapacitation is one of the five aims of punishment. Therefore,
prison should be the only form of punishment’. The first two statements are correct; however,
drawing the two points together does not produce a logical argument.

Achieving critical analysis in your work

Now that you understand the different qualities that are involved in critical thinking, it is
important to consider how you can apply these skills. The following checklist details some
strategies that you can use to demonstrate that you have thought critically about the ideas and
theories that you present in your work.

1. Think about your references: Consider where your references have come from.
Question who wrote the piece of work and what their biases might be. For instance, a
blog from a strong religious group is not an impartial source on issues such as euthanasia
or abortion. Additionally, think about when your references were written: statistics
showing a ‘recent’ increase in crime may not be relevant if the article was written in
1985.

2. Interpret your evidence: Question what a particular piece of work (or a reference) is
actually saying. Identify its limitations and highlight these limitations in your work.

3. Avoid description: Limit the description of case studies, crimes, and events to minimal
detail and history. It is better to analyse and explain why something happened rather than
simply describe events.

4. Find an academic framework. Use an academic theory to interpret evidence and avoid
description. For example, a psychological theory on why individuals commit crime could
help you to interpret a case study of murder in greater depth. In our example of crime
prevention, we could consider the notion of the offender as a rational actor to help
evaluate a particular initiative.

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 5. Consider counter arguments. It is important that you identify any counter-arguments
that could weaken or refute your points and address them in your work. Many students
are reluctant to raise any points that undermine their arguments; however, highlighting
counter-arguments and discussing the limitations of the counter-argument actually
strengthen your work by showing that you are engaging deeply with the issue.

6. Go beyond simple yes/no thinking: The answers to complex questions in criminology

are often more nuanced than a simple yes or no. For example, prisons suffer from a
number of limitations when compared to community corrections; however, prisons also
fulfil many of the aims of punishment. This means that an answer to the question ‘is
prison preferable to community corrections?’ may be that both serve a unique need in the
spectrum of punishment options.

As you may have noticed, questioning and challenging material is the foundation for critical and
active thinking. Critical thinking is a skill that you will develop over time. So continue to ask
questions as you work your way through your university degree.

4. Arguing Persuasively

Developing a strong argument is an important part of responding to a question. There are several
techniques that you can use to persuasively convey your argument to the reader, as we discuss
below.

Developing your Central Argument

It is important to ask yourself “what is my main argument?” before you writing an assignment.
Students often wait until the end of the paper to state their argument as if to surprise their readers
with their conclusions. Although it seems logical to build up to your main argument, in reality
you are forcing the reader to wade through the entire paper to determine its purpose. Think about
the genre you are working in. An academic piece of work is not a suspense novel or thriller! You
need to state your argument from the outset as this will help create a coherent framework for the
rest of your assignment.

Your central argument should provide a succinct response to the question in one or two
sentences and make your position clear from the start of your assignment. This statement should
not be vague or invite further questions on the subject. A main argument in response to our
example question of alcohol-fuelled violence might look like this:

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 Situational crime prevention initiatives, such as increasing police patrols in night time
hotspots and enforcing an earlier closing time for clubs, bars and pubs, have a limited
impact on alcohol-fuelled violence and may instead exacerbate this violence.

Since there are two parts to this question, we also need to comment on the strengths and
weaknesses of social crime prevention strategies for our argument to be complete. For example:

The problem of alcohol-fuelled violence is often caused by masculinity, aggression, and

an underlying binge drinking culture, factors that require a more comprehensive social
crime prevention approach.

Before you begin writing your assignment write your main argument at the top of your page and
make sure that everything you include in your essay thereafter relates back to this argument.
Your argument is likely to change and evolve as you conduct further research - this is a good
thing, as it shows you are starting to think more critically about the topic. Do not be afraid to
change your stance in light new evidence (see Section 3: Thinking Critically). While your
argument may change or become more nuanced as you write your assignment it is important to
think about and formulate your core argument from the outset as this will direct your research
and structure your work.

Developing Support for your Argument

Once you have devised your main argument, you can start developing the supporting arguments,
or key points, that will help you to argue your case. If you were writing an essay skeleton
(Dialogue Box 2), each of these key points would form the headings and subheadings of your
outline, and would go on to form the subject of each individual paragraph in your paper. By
confining each of your key points to their own paragraph, and then, by arranging these
paragraphs into a logical order, you are able to develop a clear and coherent argument throughout
your paper.

If we go back to our example question, there are three key points that we can make in support of
our main argument:

1. Situational crime prevention strategies suffer from a number of weaknesses:

a. they displace crime;
b. they do not provide a long-term solution to the problem; and,
c. they focus on changing the environment and not the underlying causes of the crime.
2. Social crime prevention strategies offer a better alternative to situational crime prevention
because:
a. they are better able to address the broader social problems underlying the crime; and,
b. they offer a long term solution to the issue.

17
3. Although social crime prevention strategies are the most ideal option, they may be difficult to
implement:
a. they often require more resources and ongoing costs compared to situational crime
prevention strategies; and,
b. it may be difficult to generate public and political support for such approaches.

Each of these key and sub points can be broken down to form individual paragraphs. For
example, your first paragraph would argue that situational crime prevention strategies displace
crime (1. a.); your second paragraph, that situational crime prevention strategies do not provide a
long-term solution to the problem (1. b.), and so on.

Structuring your Argument

A strong structure helps to develop a logical and coherent argument. Most assignments require
an introduction, body and conclusion. It is often best to write the body of your assignment first.
This is because you will be in a better position to talk about the scope of your assignment (in
your introduction after you state your main argument) and summarise your main argument and
key points (in your conclusion) once you have written the bulk of your paper. Most of your word
count should be dedicated to the body of your essay (approximately 70% of the word length),
and then to your conclusion (18%) and introduction (12%).

Capturing your Argument in your Introduction

Your introduction should introduce the topic and your key argument. It needs to be short and
direct. Most introductions will contain five distinct parts: an introductory statement which
presents the issue; a statement asserting your main argument; an outline of what you will discuss
in the assignment (the key points you will discuss); an explanation on the significance of the
topic; and a concluding statement that will summarise what conclusions the paper will draw.

Building your Argument into the Body

The main section or body of your paper should reply to the essay question. You can use some of
the brainstorming techniques discussed in Dialogue Boxes 1 and 2 to help you develop an outline
for the body of your assignment.

Each paragraph in your essay needs its own structure - an introduction, body and conclusion. A
paragraph should contain:

1. An introductory statement presenting your key point.

2. A section which provides an explanation of the point you are making or the concepts
being discussed.
3. Evidence (the bulk of the paragraph) that supports your point. Here you can provide
references to reputable sources and any statistical data, or real-life (not hypothetical)

18
 examples to illustrate your point. Also include any counter-arguments at this stage of the
paragraph.
4. A concluding statement which demonstrates how this information is connected to the
essay question or main argument. This step involves an explanation of why the subject of
the paragraph is relevant to your main argument (the overall argument you are making)
and is a key step in developing a strong argument that runs throughout the entire
assignment.

Below is an example of a strong paragraph in response to our example essay question.

DIALOGUE BOX 5: EXAMPLE OF A STRONG PARAGRAPH

19
 Concluding your Argument

The concluding paragraph should provide a summary of your argument and relate this discussion
to any broader issues at hand. This is your time to ask “so what” and “why?” It is not the place to
introduce new material or develop an argument which is out of sync with the material you have
presented in your essay (Hall et al. 2006). Your conclusion should clearly summarise your main
argument and each of the key points you made and provide a concluding statement which relates
the problem back to wider issues, demonstrating the relevance of your discussion.

Arguing your Point: Appropriate Use of Language

The language you use is essential to constructing a persuasive argument. In this section we
discuss some of the techniques you can use to help you argue your point with more authority.

Use Reputable Sources and Examples to Substantiate your Argument:

When making any statement, you must support it with reputable evidence. You can qualify your
statements by using real-life examples, but not personal experiences (as you must be able to cite
them). Real-life examples can convey the implications of your argument and are useful for
dealing with difficult or unusual subject matter. For example, if you were discussing the issue of
sex-trafficking, you could convey the harms experienced by sex-trafficking victims by discussing
a well-documented account of one of the victims.

When selecting examples to substantiate your argument you need to be critical of which sources
you choose to include (Hall et al. 2006). For instance, you should ask yourself: why do I accept
this argument? How do I know that this source is reliable? Does this source only represent
certain interests? Again, this demonstrates your ability to think critically about the subject
matter.

Avoid Using Unqualified Opinion:

Opinions do not substantiate your argument because they are not grounded in evidence nor do
they come from an expert in the area. Take the following statement:

I personally believe that criminals should be locked up and then I think we should throw away
the key because in my opinion retribution is the most important aim of punishment.

This sentence is speculative and based on personal opinion - there is no academic or reputable
evidence supplied. A good argument should draw on the key concepts of the course and illustrate
an understanding of these concepts, as well as use reputable sources to support the argument
being made. For example:

20
Smith (2012) argues that sentences (such as imprisonment) should be harsher as retribution is a
key aim of punishment.

OR

As retribution is a key aim of punishment (Jones 2012), imprisonment is important as it is the

harshest form of punishment in our society.

These sentences are much stronger than the first because the argument is clear and well
substantiated. Good arguments will provide a valid reason for the claim; unqualified arguments
rely on personal opinion.

Avoid Using Strong, Informal and Emotive Language:

The words and terms you use to convey a point can also impact upon the persuasiveness of your
writing. For example, it is difficult to persuasively argue your point using emotive or informal
language:

The absolutely horrific crime of murder clearly proves that all criminals are born
bad and evil.
OR

Police forces are made up of macho, tough guys who beat up young kids.

The statements above are not as effective as using rational arguments based on sound theories:

Mass murder is an example of deterministic theories of crime.

OR

Police culture can lead to stereotypical behaviour, such as an emphasis on

physicality, male-domination, and over-policing.

Avoid Using Generalisations or Assertions:

Generalisations and assertions are usually an outcome of poor reasoning and a lack of evidence.
It is important that when you make statements you do so impartially. For instance: ‘ all police use
discretion badly all of the time’ could be written as ‘police discretion can have both positive
and negative consequences’. To avoid making generalisations or assertions provide evidence to
substantiate your point. Rather than claiming ‘crime is increasing’, write ‘the number of assaults
in South Australia has increased by 5% from 2007 to 2009 (National Crime Office 2011)’. The

21
 second example is clear, specific and well referenced, and therefore provides excellent support to
the argument that ‘crime is on the increase’.

5. Writing Clearly

Effective writing strengthens your argument, engages your reader, and makes your work look
polished and professional. Ineffective writing is difficult to read and makes the reader work hard
to discern your argument. Many writing foibles are habits that we have developed over time and
have become part of our writing style, so improving your writing requires a conscious effort to
identify common mistakes and learn how you can correct these mistakes. Below we outline some
common writing errors and discuss how they can be corrected to enhance your expression.

Write complete sentences

A sentence must contain a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and a finite verb (an
action word that tells what the subject does) and it must express a complete thought. Incomplete
sentences are more common than you may think in student writing. Below are some examples of
incomplete and complete sentences:

Incomplete Sentence Complete Sentence

The high number of youth offenders. The high number of youth offenders
convicted of assault suggests an increased
police focus on this crime.

(Only contains a subject, has no verb).

A person speeding. A person speeding risks being stopped by the
police.

(Does not contain a finite verb or express a

complete thought).
Courts finding it difficult to efficiently Courts finding it difficult to efficiently
complete trials. complete trials could adopt the crime control
approach.

(Does not contain a finite verb or express a

complete thought).

To determine if a sentence you write is complete ask ‘what happens/ happened to (the subject of
the sentence)’? For example, if you ask ‘what happens to the person speeding’, the incomplete
sentence above is unable to provide an answer. The sentence ‘the person speeding risks being
stopped by the police’, does answer your question.

A second strategy you can use to ensure that your sentence is complete is to read the sentence out
loud. Often if we read our writing out loud we can hear the mistakes that are not immediately

22
evident. Ask yourself ‘would this sentence make sense if I went up and said it to someone’?
Often incomplete sentences are sentence fragments that you need to add to in order to complete
the sentence. Familiarise yourself with the mechanics of a complete sentence to ensure that your
writing makes sense. Eventually it will become second nature (if it is not already).

Keep it simple

Simplicity is a golden rule of writing. Often students think that their writing needs to be verbose
to show their intelligence and to adhere to academic conventions (Billing 2013). This is not the
case at all. In fact, convoluted writing that uses complex words where simple words would
suffice is difficult to read and often indicates that the student is trying to mask their lack of
understanding by using large words and overblown sentences. There are three strategies that you
can adopt to ensure your writing is simple, direct and effective.

Firstly, ensure that your sentences are clear and short. Split long sentences into shorter ones
by using punctuation and linking words. Consider the following example from Hay et al. (2006,
p. 166):

Although it is a good idea to read as much as possible because it will help to improve
your writing style, it is not a good idea to spend so much time reading that you never
have time for writing assignments or talking to your colleagues, and so the advice
usually given is that students should spend one hour of each day in general reading.

This sentence is grammatically correct, but far too long. If you use too many words like ‘and’,
‘although’, ‘if’, and ‘while’ then this is an indication that your sentence is too long. Write shorter
sentences. Note the use of full stops and linking words in the revised example below:

It is a good idea to read as much as possible because it will improve your writing style.
However, too much time spent in reading will leave you with no time for writing
assignments or talking to colleagues. Therefore, we usually advise students to spend
one hour each day in general reading (Hay et al. 2006, p. 166).

Secondly, remove any unnecessary words. Consider the passage below:

Social crime prevention focuses intensively on the values and the social discipline
systems and beliefs that influence or affect, or may impact upon whether or not people
may decide to commit crime. Whether those crimes that they commit are major crimes,
like murder, or minor crimes, like theft, and regardless of the situational factors and
pressures that can also impact on and influence the commission of such aforementioned
crimes.

The words which have been crossed out do not add anything to the text; the shorter, highlighted
sentence is more powerful.

23
Finally, always use the clearest word that most directly conveys what it is you are trying to
say. Searching the thesaurus for a more sophisticated word can backfire if you do not understand
the meaning of the word. Use the simplest word to express your point (Billing 2013).

Use active rather than passive voice

When a verb is in the active voice, the subject of the verb is clearly identified:

Example: Scientists perform experiments.

When a verb is in the passive voice, the subject of the verb is acted upon rather than acting:

Example: Experiments are performed by scientists.

Passive constructions use more words, are less direct and are weaker than active verbs. We often
slip into the passive tense to give our writing more authority. Yet, using the active voice is much
clearer. Using the active voice often requires us to find evidence (i.e. a reference) to support
what we are saying. For example:

Passive: The data were examined and it was concluded the rates were too high
Active: The National Crime Office (2011) examined the data and concluded that
the rates were too high.

You can see that the active sentence is much more persuasive. Get into the habit of writing in the
active voice to improve your writing.

Edit Thoroughly: Writing is Rewriting

You might imagine that good writers sit down at the computer and type instantly polished
sentences that are eloquent and clear. The reality is quite the opposite. Good writers know that
writing is rewriting. Many students rush to write an assignment and only briefly revise their work
prior to submission. This approach leaves no room to improve the writing and strengthen the
argument and structure of an assignment. A first draft is only the beginning and should be
thoroughly revised. Acknowledging that a first draft will not be perfect also helps you overcome
perfectionism and procrastination (see Dialogue Box 6).

Editing is an essential part of writing and you should revise a piece of work at least three times
for content, structure, and writing style. When editing a piece of work:

1. Ensure that the content is accurate; that the argument makes sense and is well supported,
and that all information supplied is relevant to the topic.

24
 2. Check the structure of the assignment; that the writing flows well and that the argument
has been logically developed.
3. Look at the overall writing style; ensure that there are no spelling and grammatical errors
or typos, and check for those types of errors we discussed earlier in this section.

Read your essay with the view to identify missing text or sections that need either revision,
clarification or improvement. You must be careful not to repeat quotations and sentences. It is
common for lecturers and tutors to see sentences repeated in essays (sometimes up to three or
four times) because students have simply used the “copy & paste” function in Microsoft Word™
and not “cut & paste” to remove the sentence or quotation from where it previously appeared in
text.

When it comes to proof reading your essay, it is always best to get someone else to do this for
you - they will be able to identify the expressive and typographical errors that your eyes often
miss. Do not simply rely on Microsoft Word™ to pick up grammar, spelling and punctuation
errors using the underline function. (Microsoft Word™ will not identify typographical errors
which have been spelt correctly. For instance, it is not uncommon for markers to see
misspellings of “trial” in student assignments, such as: “the trail has been a vitally important
process of determining guilt in the criminal justice system since the 18 th century”. These errors
can easily be missed without careful proof reading).

DIALOGUE BOX 6: PROCRASTINATION AND WRITER’S BLOCK :

It is 8pm and your essay is due tomorrow. As you sit at your computer and stare at the empty
page panic spreads through you. Your mind remains stubbornly blank. You decide to take a
break, check Facebook, respond to some emails, get up to go to the toilet, then to get a glass
of water while you wait for inspiration to strike. It’s now 9pm. You decide to read one more
article before you begin writing. Now it’s 10pm. You tell yourself, “I can’t work in this
messy room. I’ll have to re-organise my desk!” Now it’s 11 pm. You have made no progress
and the feeling of dread grows and paralysis sets in….

A version of this situation is familiar to anyone who has sat down to write. No one is immune
to feelings of fear or inadequacy and acts of procrastination when faced with a challenging
piece of work (indeed, I’ve just eaten my lunch, looked at photos of my dog, responded to
some emails, Googled bathroom designs and made myself coffee before writing this dialogue
box!). Procrastination can take many forms. Even tasks that seem like legitimate work
(reading another article or responding to emails) can be a way of procrastinating on larger,
more difficult tasks.

Here are a few tips you can use to tackle procrastination and writers block:

Listen to the stories your mind is telling you: Often we procrastinate because of underlying
fears and anxiety. For example, our subconscious may be telling us that we are not good
enough or smart enough to achieve the grade we are after. We may unknowingly be scared of
failure or be averse to spending time on an assignment for fear of being disappointed by the

25
result. Here, procrastination becomes a form of self-sabotage as it gives us an excuse for not
achieving a high mark or a pass grade. By leaving an assignment to the last minute we can
tell ourselves, “I would have done better if I had more time”. It pays to be mindful of these
thoughts, our fears and our negative assumptions. Have realistic expectations of yourself -
you are learning how to write assignments and succeed at university and this takes time and
effort.

Break the task down into smaller parts: It is daunting to sit down and write a large or
complex research essay. As we have shown you throughout this chapter there are many
different components to completing an assignment. Instead of simply adding “write research
essay” to your to-do-list, break the essay down into a series of small, bite-sized tasks. This
may include: finding references to read; reading through journal articles; breaking down the
essay question and formulating a central argument; drafting an essay plan; writing one
paragraph on situational crime prevention; or editing the first draft. These tasks can be
completed in several hours and do not seem as insurmountable as writing an entire essay.

Begin early and write as you go: The previous strategy requires you to start work on your
assignments early. Do not leave writing your assignment or studying for an exam until 8pm
the night before. Once you have identified small tasks, begin these tasks early on. Also, do
not fall into the trap of spending too much time on reading and finding references and then
forgetting all the information over time. Find ways to actively engage with the information
you take in, such as: creating mind maps; taking notes; summarising what you have read; or
writing your understanding of the key ideas and theories.

Write what you know: Sometimes you need to just start writing, but it can feel impossible.
One technique to help get you started is free writing - giving yourself a set period of time to
just write down whatever comes to your head. If your mind is really blank, write “my mind is
blank” and continue to put down your thoughts. Write whatever you know about a given
subject. From here you will often start to loosen up and get more basic words on the page.
This work will need to be revised, but it is better than a blank page.

Realise that writing a polished piece of work takes several drafts. Nothing is perfect, and
many pieces of writing are nonsensical in first draft form. Remember that writing is a
cumulative process linked to revision. Be aware of perfectionism. It is very rare to achieve a
perfect grade. It is important to get work finished and expectations of perfection are not
sustainable at university or the workplace.

Build in a reward: Set an amount of focused time to write or a word count to reach. Turn off
your email and social media, get yourself prepared (water, tick, snacks, tick, empty bladder,
tick) and do not leave your desk until your set time. Once you have done 1 or 2 hours of
focused writing, you will be amazed at how much you have achieved. Reward yourself with
a coffee, or some time on Facebook and feel proud!

Do not let procrastination get you down: We all do it and when you lapse it’s ok. Guilt is a
counterproductive emotion that leads to more procrastination and a downward spiral. It is
important that you recognise when you are procrastinating and that you take steps to

26
 counteract it. If you have put off this assignment do what you can to remedy the problem and
salvage the assignment then move onto your next task.

6. Conclusion

Throughout this chapter we have given you guidance on how to build the skills you need to
succeed at university. The process of perfecting these skills is continuous. With each assignment,
topic, semester and year that you complete at university you will hone your critical thinking,
writing and study skills. Be receptive to constructive feedback and seek out the help of your
tutors, lecturers, librarians and any other support people that exist in your university. These
people are there to help you learn and develop your skills. Your fellow students may also be able
to offer you advice and support. It is important to be open to continuously learning and
committed to improving if you want to succeed. When you reach the end of your degree you will
realise that you have learned not only a large amount about crime and justice, but also that you
have developed skills that allow you to approach the world in a more critical and analytical way.

7. Questions
1. Reflect on the skills discussed throughout this chapter. Identify two or three specific areas
that you could work on to improve your assignments (for example, referencing, writing
more clearly, or developing a stronger reference list). What small steps could you take to
improve these areas in your next assignment?
2. Critical thinking is an important skill to learn. Can you identify some of the biases and
barriers that may be holding you back and limiting your critical thinking abilities?
3. Try writing an essay plan using the template on page 29.
4. How can some of the skills you have learned in this chapter be applied to different types
of assessment, such as an oral presentation? Discuss how some of these skills can be
transferred to other types of assessment.
5. Try reading and marking someone else’s assignment. Swap a draft of your assignment
with a friend or class mate and try mark the assignment based on the criteria outlined in
Section 1: Understanding and Planning Assessment.

8. Further Help

Useful Books
 Billing, M 2013, Learn to write badly: How to succeed in the social sciences, Cambridge
University Press, New York.
 Burns, T & Sinfield, S 2008, Essential study skills: The complete guide to success at
university, Sage Publications: London.
 Cottrell, S 2013, The study skills handbook, 4th Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke.
 Hay, I, Bochner, D, Blacket, G & Dungey, C 2012, Making the grade: A guide to successful
communication and study, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press, New York.

27
  Tredinnick, M 2006, The little red writing book, UNSW Press, Sydney.
 Tredinnick, M 2008, The little green grammar book, UNSW Press, Sydney.

Useful Websites & Online Sources:

 CollegeAtlas.org, <http://www.collegeatlas.org/college-study-guides.html>.
 Incomplete sentences: A skill sheet, Ludwig Education Services LLC
<http://www.writeguide.com/wp-content/uploads/IncompleteSentences.pdf>.
 QUT Write < http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/write/>.
 ThinkWell <www.ithinkwell.com.au>.

Referencing Guides:
 Deakin Guide to Referencing <http://www.deakin.edu.au/students/study-
support/referencing>.
 Monash University: Citing and Referencing < http://guides.lib.monash.edu/citing-
referencing>.
 QUT Cite <http://www.citewrite.qut.edu.au/cite/>.

9. Reference List

Baker, JR, Brizee, A & Velázquez, A 2016, ‘Writing a research paper’, The Writing Lab & The
OWL at Purdue & Purdue University¸ retrieved 22/4/2016
<https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/owlprint/658/>.

Billing, M 2013, Learn to write badly: How to succeed in the social sciences, Cambridge
University Press, New York.

Hay, I, Bochner, D & Dungey, C 2006, Making the grade: A guide to successful communication
and study, 3rd Edition, Oxford University Press, New York.

Miller, P, Coomber, K, Sønderlund, A & McKenzie, S 2012, ‘The long-term effect of lockouts
on alcohol-related emergency department attendances within Ballarat, Australia’, Drug and
alcohol review, 31(4), pp.370-376.

National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking 2013, Defining critical thinking, National
Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking, retrieved 15/04/2016
<http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766>.

Wilson, JQ & Kelling, GL 1982, ‘Broken windows’, Atlantic Monthly, 249(3), pp.29-38.

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 ESSAY BRAINSTORMING & PLANNING WORKSHEET
ESSAY QUESTION:
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
INTERPRETING AN ESSAY QUESTION:
1. What are the key parts of the question? Breakdown the question into smaller, more
manageable parts to determine what it is really asking you.

INITIAL PLANNING & BRAINSTORMING:

2. Identify the key concepts that you will need to mention in your essay (list or map out).

29
 RESEARCH & REFERENCING:
3. Identify five different academic sources from both the TOPIC GUIDE and corresponding
TEXTBOOK CHAPTER that you could use to begin your research.

DEVELOPING AN ARGUMENT:
4. What is your main argument in response to this essay question? Summarise in two or
three sentences.

5. What are four key points that support your argument?

Are there any counter-arguments or weaknesses?

30

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