Business Admin.

&
Communication
Chapter-1
Over View of Business
Communication
Business
Communication
Communication is perhaps as
old as the human civilization.
Its origin can be traced to the
growth of the human
Con’t…
 society. In the primitive stage of human society,
people satisfied their wants, which were limited to
the basic
 needs for food, clothing & shelter and by their
own individual efforts. At that time life was
isolated and there
 was little communication. But while people hunted
for food, they too were hunted by other wild
animals.
Con,t…
 They lived in constant danger. The common need for
protection and security led to group life. Then
communication
 was evolved in the form of sounds, indications, signals, and
expressions. As group life developed, and human
 wants continued to increase, forms of communication also
developed. Gradually, with the increase in
 population, emergence of division of labor and
specialization, and birth of exchange economy human beings
 had to be in constant communication.
Con’t…
 At some stage, the signs and symbols created language.
With the growth of business-industry and commerce,
 ways of expressing ideas in languages developed.
Gradually people were able to shape their attitudes, norms,
 values, culture, religion, etc through communication.
Science entered the field and new forms of oral, written
 and audio visual communication developed. Thus the
development of communication is inseparable from the
 development of human civilization.
Con’t
 In the present day world of mass production,
involving organizations with large number of
personnel with their
 social and cultural diversifications, and complex
industrial operations and influences,
communication is of vital
 need at every step in industrial and commercial
activities.
Con’t…
 The word Communication is derived from a Latin
word “communicate” which means “to share”.
 Therefore, the word communication means sharing
of ideas, messages and words expressed through a
 language, which is easily comprehensible to the
listener. Communication starts with a sender, who
has a
 message to send to the receiver.
Con’t…
 The sender must encode the message and select a
communication channel
 that will deliver it to the receiver. In
communicating facts, the message may be encoded
with words,
 numbers, or digital symbols; in communicating
feelings; it may be encoded as body language or
tone of voice.
Con’t…
 Peter little: communication is the process by which
information is transmitted between individuals
and/or
 organization so that an understanding response
results.
 W. H. Newman and C. F. summer: Communication
is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, emotions
by
 two or more persons.
Con’t…
 Keith Davis: Communication is the process of passing
information and understanding from one person to
 Another.
 Generally communication is a process that involves the
transfer of information and understanding from one
 person to another person. Communication is a shared
meaning among two or more people through verbal
 and non-verbal transactions.
Con’t…
 Business communication is a specialized field and
branch of general communication. It is hardly
possible
 to make a basic difference between the two. The
process and the principles that regulate them are
similar.
 Their difference lies in their application to
situations
Con’t…
 General communication is concerned with many roles
 at large. On the other hand business communication is concerned
with business activities like internal
 business activities: maintaining and improving the morale of
employees, giving order to workers,
 prescribing methods and procedures, announcing policies and
organizational changes, and etc… as well as
 external business activities: selling and buying goods and
services, reporting the government and
 shareholders on the financial condition of the business operations
and etc.
Nature/Characteristic of Business
communication

§ It is not that begins at one time and stops at

another.
 § It concerns all managers at all level of
management
 § It facilitates managerial functions.
 § It facilitates managerial roles
 Objectives of Business Communication

 § To develop understanding and information among all workers

and this is necessary for group efforts.
 § To foster an attitude which is necessary for motivation, co-
operation and job satisfaction
 § To discourage the spread of misinformation and rumors which
can cause conflict and tension
 § To encourage the subordinates to give ideas and suggestions for
improving up on the product or work
 environment and taking these suggestions seriously
 § To prepare workers for a change in methods of operations by
giving them necessary information in advance
Con’t..
§ To improve the labor management relations by
keeping the communication channels open and
accessible
 § To encourage social relations among workers by
encouraging inter-communication
 § To develop sound intra organizational and inter
organizational relations in order to achieve the
desired business goals
1.2.Significance of Business
Communication
§ It promotes managerial efficiency
 § It is an aid to planning and decision making
 § It strengthens control and operations
 § It increases co-operation and understanding
 § It is a basis of leadership action
 § It develops co-ordination
 § It leads to job satisfaction
CHAPTER TWO –
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

 2.1. ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION

PROCESS
 Process of Communication
 Sender (communicator): is the source of the message
who initiates the communication process. The sender is
the one who has certain ideas, information, feelings,
attitudes, intentions, or emotions which he or she wants
to share with the receiver. When you send a message you
are the writer or speaker depending on whether your
communication is written or oral.
Con’t…
 FEEDBACK
 SENDER CHANNEL
RECEIVER

 NOISE
 Fig. 1 Model of Communication Process
Con’t…
 Encoding: is the process of selecting and organizing
bits of information into transmissible message
 language.
 Message: the result of encoding is the message- either
verbal or non verbal. When you compose a message,
 you need to consider what content to include, how the
receiver interpret it and how it affect their relation.
 Channel: is the formal medium of transmission of the
message.
Con’t…
 Decoding: is the process by which the receiver interprets the
message and translates it into meaningful
 information.
 Feed back: is a response from the receiver. It is the process
of checking and clarification by asking
 questions and repeating the message to ensure that the
encoding and decoding results in mutual
 understanding of the message. It is the only way through
which the sender can know whether his or her
 messages are interpreted as intended or not.
Advantage of feed back
§ It makes the communication process two way or
bilateral and enhances the accuracy of employee
 understanding and performance
 § It increases employee satisfaction with their job
Disadvantage of feed back

§ It is a time taking activity

 § It is difficult to elicit
 § Employees do not want to give positive feedback
to the management
 Noise: is any interfering factor that, if present, can
distort the intended message. It can be present in
any
 element.
2.2. Communication Barriers

 The communication must be interpreted and

understood in the same way as it was intended to be
sent by
 the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired
results and a communication breakdown will occur.
 Barriers in communication simply refer to the natural
as well as the man made factors that hinder the
 process of effective communication. Some of the
barriers are
Con’t…
 Difference in Perception: Each office worker is unique and
brings to the job unique perception- a way of
 interpreting situations based on the individual personal
experience. Thus employees’ perception determines
 the manner in which they interpret whatever they see or hear.
 Difference in Semantics: Semantics is the study of word
meanings and their effects on human behaviors.
 Since the meaning of words may be interpreted differently
by the sender and the receiver, a barrier to
 communication may be created.
Con’t…
 Difference in Status: Status, or the level of individuals in the organization
structure, influences the quality
 of communication. Differences in status create communication barriers.
Generally, communication between
 persons of equal ranks is easier than between a superior and a subordinate.
 Difference in Mental Learning (Bias): Bias is a person’s mental learning or
inclination. It is a barrier in
 face-to-face communication as well as in written communication. Bias may be
found when interviewer is
 obtaining background information from a job applicant. Bias is often created
in written communication
 when the readers’ perception of the message is titled in one direction or
another.
Con’t…
 Difference in Status: Status, or the level of individuals in the organization
structure, influences the quality
 of communication. Differences in status create communication barriers.
Generally, communication between
 persons of equal ranks is easier than between a superior and a subordinate.
 Difference in Mental Learning (Bias): Bias is a person’s mental learning or
inclination. It is a barrier in
 face-to-face communication as well as in written communication. Bias may be
found when interviewer is
 obtaining background information from a job applicant. Bias is often created
in written communication
 when the readers’ perception of the message is titled in one direction or
another.
Con’t…
 Difference in organization climate: Some organizations
encourage workers to express their opinions
 openly and to participate in important decision making
activities. On the other hand, some managers are
 authoritarian and discourage the participation of employees
and deny their freedom of expression.
 Business Jargon: Ineffective oral and written
communication is often caused by the use of jargon. Jargon
 consists of technical terms and idioms that are peculiar to a
special group or activity such as business.
Con’t…
 Poor Communication: Lack of skill in writing and
speaking obviously prevents the sender of the
 messages from encoding his ideas properly so that he
gets across to his audience. Both of these skills can
 be developed by training and practice. Poor reading
and listening skills are also barriers to communication.
 Other barriers: time pressure, noise, physical
distance…
Strategies to Improve Communication
Effectiveness

 Major strategies for improving communication effectiveness

are the following:
 § Create an environment of trust and confidence
 § Be clear about the objectives of communication
 § The external barriers of defective channels and
organizational systems are entirely the management’s
 responsibility within the organization. The internal channels
must be kept in good working condition i.e.
 the intercoms, notice boards; information meeting must be
kept up to date.
Con’t…
§ The personal barriers can be overcome by
making a conscious effort to learn better methods
and by
 training for better communication.
 § Be sensitive to the communication situation and
receiver frame of reference
 § Listen emphatically
2.3. Interpersonal Communications and
Teamwork

 Interpersonal Communication refers to interactions between

one person (or group) with another person (or
 group) without the ASSISTANCE of a machine. In other
words a machine is not interposed in between.
 Machine Assisted Communication, however, combines the
characteristics of both interpersonal and mass
 Communication. In this communication situation one or
more people are interacting or communicating by
 means of a mechanical device or devices with one or more
receivers.
Con’t…
 On the other hand mass
 communication refers to the process by which a
complex organization with the aid of one or more
 machines produces and transmits public messages
that are directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered
 audiences. We will also present you communication
settings along with the eight elements of
 communication. Let’s now begin with Interpersonal
Communication.
2.2.1. INTERPERSONAL
COMMUNICATION

 In Interpersonal Communication one person (or group)

is interacting with another person (or group) without the
 aid of a mechanical device. The source /receiver can be
one or more individual. Encoding is usually a one-step
 process as the source transforms thoughts into speech
and or gestures. A variety of channels are available for
 use. The receiver can see, hear and perhaps even smell
and touch the source.
Con’t…
 Messages are relatively difficult
 for the receiver to terminate and are produced at little
expense. Interpersonal messages can be private or public.
 Messages can also be pinpointed to their specific targets.
For example – Excuse me, Dr… Decoding is also a
 one- process performed by those receivers who can
perceive the message. Feedback is immediate and makes
 use of visual and auditory channels. Noise can be either
semantic or environmental.
 2.3. Machine Assisted Interpersonal Communication
 It combines characteristics of both interpersonal and mass
communication situations. One or more people are
 communicating by means of a mechanical device (or devices)
with one or more receivers. One of the important
 characteristics of machine-assisted interpersonal
communication is that it allows the sources and receiver to be
 separated by both time and space. The machine can give
message permanence by storing it on paper, magnetic
 disc, or some other material.
 The machine can also extend the range of the
message by amplifying it and or
 /transmitting it over large distances. (E.g.
telephone, a letter can be reread several years after
it was written and
 communication a new.
 . 4 . Diverse Example of Machine Assisted Communication
 E –mail allows people to send messages across in minutes. People get
money out of automatic teller machines by inserting a magnetic card
following the machines by instructions. Chat rooms and newsgroups on the
Internet allow individuals to communicate by typing messages on their
computer for all to see.
 An inventor in Philadelphia has perfected the Lawn Buddy message
machine in which a five – inch tall animal
 arises from a flowerpot and asks a visitor to leave a message. Telephone
companies offer 900-or 976 – lines, where, for a fee, people can hear
recorded horoscopes, erotic fantasies or information regarding the latest
Elvis sightings.
 
Chapter 3
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
 The application of business communication principles
helps to communicate effectively through letters,
 memorandums, reports, speeches, telephones, face-to-
face conversation, etc. To compose effective messages
you need to apply certain specific communication
principles.
 The basic business communication principles known as
seven C’s of business communication provide guidelines
for choosing content and style of presentation
There are Seven C’S
 1.Completeness
 Your message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or
listener needs for the reaction you desire.
 It is necessary for bringing the desired results without the expense
of additional message. As you strive for
 completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 § Answer all queries
 § Give something extra, when desirable
 § Check the five W’s and any other essentials. The five W’s are-
who, what, where, when, why and any
 other essentials like how
2.Conciseness

 A concise message saves time and cost for both sender

and receiver.
 Conciseness means saying what you
 have to say in the fewest possible words without
sacrificing the other C qualities. To achieve conciseness
 try to observe the following suggestions:
 § Eliminate wordy expressions
 § Include only relevant statement
 § Avoid unnecessary repetition
4.Concreteness

 Communicating concretely means being specific,

definite, vivid rather than vague and general. So, good
 concrete writing and speaking include specific facts
and figures with relevant examples. The following
 guidelines should help to compose concrete and
convincing messages.
 § Use specific facts and figures
 § Put action in your verbs
 § Choose vivid and image building words
5.Clarity

 Here are some specific ways to help

 make your message clear:
 § Choose short, familiar and conversational words
 § Construct effective sentences and paragraphs
 § Have an average sentence length around 15 to 20 words and
average paragraph length of four to five
 lines in the case of letters and 8 to 9 lines in reports
 § Achieve appropriate readability and listen ability
 § Include examples, illustrations and other visual aids when
desire
6.Courtesy

 Courteous sentences/messages help to strengthen present business

friendship as well as new friends. Courtesy stems from sincere
“your attitude” It is not merely politeness with insertions of
“pleases”
 and “thank you”.
 To be courteous, considerate communicators should follow these
suggestions regarding
 the tone of communications.
 § Be sincere, thoughtful, and appreciative
 § Omit expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle the reader
 § Answer mails as promptly as possible
7.Correctness

 Correctness means that the message you are going to send

is grammatically correct and considerate(appreciative).
Similarly the message should not certain any insulating
statement which may look the potential customer(s).
 Therefore to write a correct message bears in mind the
following guidelines:
 § The message is grammatically correct
 § The information is considerate and appreciative
 § The message is bias less and impartial
 § Proper punctuation and capitalization
CHAPTER FOUR:
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER FOUR:
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION

4.1. Communication Channels and Functions

 communication, both oral and written is a predominant form of

organizational behavior.
 People in today’s organizations spend a great deal of time
communicating; the higher they go in the
 organizational hierarchy, the more time communication consumes.
However, as Peter Drucker points out, all is
 not well; “We have more attempts at communications today . . . yet
communications has proven as elusive as the unicorn.
Con’t…
 The noise level has gone up so fast that no one can really
listen anymore to all that babble about
 communications. But there is clearly less and less
communicating. The communications gap within
institutions and between groups in society has been
widening steadily to the point where it threatens to
become an unbridgeable gulf of total misunderstanding.
 while people in organizations today spend a lot of time
engaged in communication-related activity, they are not
very successful in communicating.
five basic causes of communication failure.

 1. Communication in most organizations is activity-

oriented, not results-oriented.
 When consulting with hospitals for example, it is our
practice to ask the hospital administrator to show us the
 hospital’s employee handbook. Then we ask him or her,
“Do you feel this is a good employee handbook?
 Typically, their answer will be “yes” followed by such
reasons as: It has won national awards for design and
layout.
2. Communication often is one-way

 Management frequently assumes that, as long as they are sending

messages regularly to the rest of the
 organization, they are communicating. They therefore engage
exclusively in “downward” communication,
 receiving little or no feedback from lower levels of the
organizations as a result they often do not know if their
 downward messages were received, understood, believed, or
approved of by employees, and they cannot adjust
 future messages to employees needs or characteristics. In order to
be effective, communication in organizations
 must flow not only downward, but upward and laterally as well.
3. The impact of communication is not measured

 management receives information

 feedback. However, no systematic attempt is made to measure the impact
of communication in terms of the
 objectives or results the communication was supposed to achieve. If , for
example, the employee handbook is
 designed to inform employees about company benefit programs, actual
measures should be taken to determine
 how much information employees get and retain about benefit plans by
reading that handbook. In effect,
 management must clearly define the results they want their
communication systems to achieve, and then
 regularly measure the extent to which those results have been produced.
4. Communications are not responsive to employee
needs.

 When defining the objectives of their communication systems,

management should first ask employees what
 information they want or need. Then they can tailor downward
messages to meet those needs. Rarely, for
 example, do companies ask new employees what information they
would like to receive in the new employee
 orientation meetings; rather, they assume that the information they are
providing is exactly what the employees
 need. When we have interviewed incoming employees about their
concerns and desires, we find an entire body
 of information is needed that company orientation programs do not
provide.
5. The people who implement
communication systems lack the necessary
communication skills.

 Department meetings cannot be effective if the department heads

conducting them lack meeting leadership
 skills. Employment interviews do not select the best available candidates
if the interviewers are unskilled.
 Communication systems and opportunities are not enough; the people
who use those systems must have skills
 as communicators. As the preceding discussion indicates,
communication in organizations has tow basic
 elements; communication systems (the meetings, publications,
conversations and so on in which messages are
 transmitted), and communication skills of the people participating in
those communication systems.
4.2 . Communication Functions

 I. Information Exchange
 In the broad sense, any organization that does not exchange
information with its environment will die. The
 organization both effects change in its environment and
responds to change in order to survive. Such changes
 would not be possible without the possession of
considerable information on which to base intelligent
behavior.
 Thus, the exchange of information serves the basic function
of organizational maintenance.
Con’t…
 We must also exchange sufficient information so that our
goals are somehow integrated and coordinated with
 those of others in the organization. Obviously, the separate
rules and tasks of any organization do not exist in a
 vacuum. Rather, we must accomplish each task in
coordination with other individuals, groups, and
departments.
 In one of the texts on organizational communication,
Haney presents a tragic case involving the
 mismanagement of information exchanged in a hospital
Con’t…
 In this case a deceased patient who was not
 immediately removed from his room was visited by his wife who,
upon finding her husband dead, collapsed and
 died of a heart attack herself.
 This tragedy occurred because rotting nurses in charge of the
situation did not exchange clear messages and
 failed to notify appropriate authorities the minute they knew their
patient had died. Although most instances of
 information exchange do not result in such tragic outcomes, the
smooth, timely, and undistorted flow of
 information remains an important goal of all organizations.
II. Idea and attitude imposition

 Information exchange and idea imposition are not distinct.

When a supervisor tells us how to replace the paper
 in the copying machine, how to fill out grant request
forms, or how to deal with a disciplinary problem on the
 surface he or she is informing us about how to perform
our jobs. But such information clearly does more than
 inform. It also persuades that the procedure in question is
not only acceptable but often preferred or even
 required
Con’t …
 From the time we enter an organization, we are bombarded with ideas,
information, and attitudes whose
 purpose is to effect some change in us. Whenever we join an
organization, we immediately encounter some of
 the more common forms of idea and attitude imposition. We may be
told succinctly and directly how to
 function in our daily jobs and how those jobs fit into the overall
organizational plan. At a more subtle level, our
 initiation may involve a strategic indoctrination aimed at encouraging
us to conform to the values, standards,
 and needs of the organization. Schein refers to this latter process as
“organizational socialization.”
Con’t …
 Although some socialization is probably inevitable and in some sense beneficial.
Schein maintains that what
 organizations really need are creative people who accept crucial organizational
values, but who are richly
 diversified in other significant respects. Most healthy companies are filled with
professionals, who are united in
 their dedication to the organization’s goals of high-quality products, employee
satisfaction, and productivity.
 Even so their ideas about what precisely constitutes quality, how to keep workers
happy, and how to achieve
 maximum productivity are probably quite different.
 Although organizations can command a great of conformity, only through a process
of mutual organizational
 and individual influence is innovation and growth likely to occur in the long run.
III. Evaluation

 A third major communication function is evaluation. When we

evaluate, we process, interpret, and judge. Each
 of us is evaluated before entering the organization through
applications and employment interview, and the
 notion of evaluation is really inherent in the organization’s
hierarchy. Supervisors evaluate their subordinates
 just as higher executive judge lower level supervisors. Worker
evaluation sheets, memos, organizational
 progress reports, interviews, and personal and small group
conferences are a few examples of common
 organizational evaluation procedures.
IV. Soliciting Feedback

 A fourth function of communication is soliciting feedback.

Historically, several factors have impeded feedback
 in organizations. Generally some employees simply are not
interested in communicating to management or
 participating in decision making; others are afraid to communicate
(fearing reprisals from a management or
 ostracism by their peers); still others are unaware that management
expects them to communicate; and some
 simply believe that management has no interest in their thoughts
and concerns or that management will not
 respond to them.
Con’t …
 Taken together, the communication functions we have
outlined influence the effectiveness and efficiency of the
 organization. The amount, clarity, and appropriateness of
information exchanged, the ability of the organization
 to socialize and influence its members, the impact of
evaluations, and the success of attempts to solicit feedback
 all determine the characteristics, and ultimately the success,
of a particular organization. In the next section, we
 will review some of the channels that organizations use to
achieve these functions.
4.3. Internal and External Communication

 4.3.1. External communication- refers to communication with outside sources such as

customers, suppliers,
 professional associations, government organization etc. As the external environment has
become more
 dynamic and turbulent, regular exchange of information with outside agencies and
individuals becomes
 essential. Whether by phone, fax, video tape, or letter, much of this communication is
carefully
 orchestrated, and some occurs informally. Two functional units particularly important in
managing the flow
 of external messages: the marketing department and the public relation department.
Marketing focuses on
 selling goods and services, whereas public relations is more concerned with developing the
organization’s
 overall permutation.
4.3.2. Internal communication
- takes place within the organization among
managers and other personnel
 between department, superiors and subordinates.
Vertical and horizontal communications take place
with in
 the organization
Formal and Informal Communication

 Communication in organizations takes two forms: “formal” and

Informal”. Formal channel of
 communication is established by the management and formally
shown in the charts of the organizations .It
 is the channel which is deliberately and consciously established.
Formal channel is the line of
 communication for transmission of messages and information
officially within and outside the
 organization. The formal communication channel is used to
transmit official messages, policies,
 procedures, directives, and job instruction.
Formal communication
 Formal communication is thus the official chains that
determine the flow and direction of official messages
 among individuals or divisions in an organization.
Formal channels of communication provide for the
structured
 flow of primarily vertical communication (upward
and downward) and secondarily crosswise
(horizontal and
 diagonal) communication.
Informal channel of communication
 Informal channel of communication known, as the
grapevine is communication that takes place without
 regard to hierarchical or task requirements. Informal
communication can be thought of as relating to
 personal rather than positional issues. In other words
Informal channel or the grapevine does not follow the
 formal channels established by the management. This type
of communication arises on account of natural
 desire of people to communicate each other and is the result
of social interaction of people.
Characteristics of Informal Communication

 § It is very fast and spontaneous

 § It is not entirely reliable
 § Its messages are difficult to stop once they get
started
 § It is accessible to everybody in that organization
 § It can be supportive or obstacle to the effort of
management
 
 
Types of Grapevine Chains

 Types of Grapevine Chains

 Single strand Chain: In this chain Person “A” tells to a single
person “B”, who tells it to a person “C” and etc.
 The Gossip Chain: a person being the source of the information
transmits to many individuals.
 Probability Chain: here individuals are indifferent about to whom
they offer information. They tell people
 at random and those people intern tell other at random.
 Cluster Chain: Here person “A” conveys the information to few
selected individuals, some of whom then
 inform a few selected individuals.
Downward Communication

 When vertical communication flows from a higher level to one or more lower
levels in the organization it is
 known as downward communication. Downward communication flows from
the top of the organization
 and carries the message that translates top management planning and decision
making into orders that
 direct office employee. Some examples of downward communication are:
 § Information related to policies, rules, procedures, objectives, and other type
of plans
 § Work assignment and directives
 § Feedback about work performance
 § General information about the organization such as its progress and status
Upward Communication

 The vertical flow of communication from, a lower level to higher

levels in the organization is called
 upward communication. This may take place from the supervisor
to middle level manager, from manager to
 general manager and then from general manager to board of
directors. It moves in the opposite direction
 and is based up on the communication demand system designed by
management to receive information
 from operational level. It helps managers judge the effectiveness of
downward communication and enables
 them to learn about organizational problems
Con’t …
 Major areas of information should be communicated from
 lower level through upward communication are:
 § The activities of subordinates in terms of their
achievement progress and plans
 § Unresolved work problems in which subordinates may
need help from seniors
 § Suggestions (ideas) for improvement in offices or
department/organization
 § The feelings of subordinates about their jobs, associates,
working environment and etc
Lateral Communication
 It usually follows the pattern of workflow in an
organization occurring between members of work
groups
 between one work group and another between
members of departments having the same status.
Its main
 purpose is to provide a direct channel for
organizational co-operation and problem solving.
Diagonal Communication

 Diagonal communication refers to interchange of

message among two persons located at different levels of
 hierarchy and outside the direct chain of command. It
serves the purpose of coordination and integration
 and involves by passing the chain of command as in the
case of horizontal communication. It is used to
 speed up information flow to improve understanding and
to coordinate for the achievement of
 organizational objectives.
From the point of view of human
aspect
 Intrapersonal communication: is communication
with in oneself. It refers to speaking to oneself.
 Thinking, encoding, decoding are can be
examples. This shows that intrapersonal
communication is the
 foundation for interpersonal communication and
there is no interpersonal communication without
 intrapersonal communication.
Interpersonal Communication
 Interpersonal Communication: is a communication flow
from individual to individual in face to face and
 group settings. It is a type of communication that exists
between or among people.
 Verbal and Non-verbal Communication
 Verbal communication- can be of two types, oral and
written. The main difference between the oral and written is
the time factor. Written communication is slower in
preparation, in conveyance (carrying or
 transmitting) and in perception (understanding).
Non-verbal Communication
 Non-verbal Communication: is the process of
communication without words. People use
nonverbal signals
 to support and clarify verbal communication
Categories of non-verbal
communication
 1. Appearance: conveys nonverbal expressions that
affect recipient’s attitude towards the verbal
 message, even before they read or hear them. It can be
of two types:
 a. Personal appearance: clothing, hair style,
cosmetics, jewelry, neatness, etc…are parts of personal
 appearance. They can convey impressions regarding
occupation, age, nationality, social and
 economic level, etc … depending on circumstances.
b. Appearance of surroundings
 it includes office size, location of the office, furnishings, machine
 and equipments, wall decorations, floor, lightings, etc…
 2. Body language: it includes the following:
 a. Facial expression: are (eye and face) especially helpful means of
communicating non-verbally.
 They can show hidden emotions like anger, annoyance, confusion,
enthusiasm, fear, joy, love
 interest, sorrow, surprising and uncertainty.
 b. Gestures and postures: gestures (traffic and deaf people).
Postures convey impression of self
 impressions of self confidence, status and interest.
. Smell and touch
 c. Smell and touch: various smell or odors and
artificial fragrances on human beings can
sometimes
 convey emotions and feelings better than spoken
words. For example some odor on equipment can
 indicate- smoke, fire, decay or dangerous leaks…
 Touching people in different ways can silently
communicate friendship, approval, anger or other
feelings.
3. Silence, Time and Sound
 3. Silence, Time and Sound:
 Silence: can actually cause serious hard feelings, loss of business, loss of
sales, sometimes loss of profit
 and loss of opportunities.
 Time: is important in many ways. So, being on time for appointments,
for work each day and for deadlines
 communicate favorable nonverbal messages in our culture.
 Sound: in addition to speaking person voice, other human sound like
clearing throat, language, etc… also
 communicate non-verbally. Sometimes nonhuman sounds like bells, cars,
trains, airplanes all can be
 significant nonverbal communicators.
Channels of nonverbal communication

 Channels of nonverbal communication

 1. Facial expressions and eye behavior
 The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing
both the type and the intensity of a person’s
 feelings. A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of
communication. They can be used to indicate
 attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction and
to establish dominance. Although the eyes
 and the face are usually reliable sources of meaning, people
sometimes manipulate their expressions to simulate
 an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true feelings.
2. Gestures and Postures

 2. Gestures and Postures

 By moving their bodies people can express both specific
and general messages. Many gestures, a wave of the
hand, for example, have a specific and intentional
meaning such as “hello” or goodbye.”
 The other types of body movement are unintentional and
express general messages.
 These unconscious signals reveal whether a person feels
confident or nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive
orpassive, powerful or powerless.
3. Vocal characteristic/tones

 The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say
a lot about who you are, your
 relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
 4. Personal/physical/ appearance
 The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity.
People respond to use on the basis of our
 physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us.
When people think we are capable and
 attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior,
which in turn affects other people’s
 perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style modify our
appearance.
Con’t …
 The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say
a lot about who you are, your
 relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
 4. Personal/physical/ appearance
 The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity.
People respond to use on the basis of our
 physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us.
When people think we are capable and
 attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior,
which in turn affects other people’s
 perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style modify our
appearance.
5. Use of time and space

 This involves showing respect by being on time. Space

also serves as a symbol of status and determines how
 comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal
communication serves important functions with respect
 to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it,
substitute for it, or accent it.
 It is important for the receiver to understand the real
message conveyed by the nonverbal communication.
verbal and nonverbal communication
 Although verbal and nonverbal communication works together
best when they are complementary, nonverbal
 communication may take the place of or even contradict
formal communication or is misleading. One should
 look for nonverbal symbols as well as listen to the literal
meaning of a sender’s words; he should particularly be
 aware of contradictions of the messages.
CHAPTER FIVE – PUBLIC RELATION

 5.1.The publics
 A public is any group whose members have a common interest
or common values in a particular situation.
 Publics differ from one organization to another and the publics
of one organization may not be the publics of
 another organization. Therefore you have to help your
organization to identify its publics.
Cont…

 Lecture note for the course Mgmt 212

 According to Wragg (1993), public relations publics or
audiences can be divided into four categories which
 include:
 1. Functional Publics: They are those publics which enable
the organization to perform its chosen tasks. These
 include its customers, consumers, business firms with which it
relates, employees, trade unions which represent
 it in its given line of trade or business, suppliers of raw
materials and components.
Cont…
 2.Enabling Publics: These are publics which permit the
organization to function within the framework of the
 society to which it belongs.
 Such publics include regulatory bodies (e.g. the Nigerian
Institute of Public Relations, Advertising Practitioners
 Council of Nigeria, National Broadcasting Commission, etc.),
community leaders, politicians and shareholders.
Cont…
 3. Diffused Publics: Within this group are media
organizations, pressure groups and local residents. These are
 varied audiences and often, especially in the case of the media
and pressure groups are avenues to other major
 audiences.
 4. Normative Publics: This term refers to trade associations
and professional bodies, but it could also include
 political parties.
 Among the four categorizations, the functional publics are
usually closest to the organization and may exhibit
 the highest level of interaction.
 Public Relations Defined
 Public relations means different things to different people.
Some scholars consider it as a philosophical and
 moral concept. Others define it by looking at what public
relations does in practice. The basic purpose of public
 relations is, more or less the same in all sectors- governments,
public and private concerns, and other
 institutions.
 an idea of public relations and the scope of its operations.
 Many scholars have tried to define public relations by some of
its most visible techniques and tactics, such as
 publicity in a newspaper, a television interview with an
organizations spokesperson, or the appearance of a celebrity at
a special event.
 These people failed to understand that public relations is a
process involving many subtle and far reaching aspects.
 It includes research and analysis, policy formation,
programming, communications and feedback from
 numerous publics. Generally speaking, public relations
practitioners operate on two distinct levels: as advisers
 to their clients or to an organization’s top managements and as
technicians who produce and disseminate
 messages in multiple media channels.
 A number of definitions have been formulated over the years.
Rex F Harllow, a pioneer public relations
 educator, compiled more than 500 definitions from almost as
many sources. After analyzing 472 definitions he
 produced a definition that includes both conceptual and
operational elements.
 Public relations is the distinctive management function which
helps establish and maintain mutual lines of
 communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation
between an organization and its publics; involves
 the management of problems or issues; helps management to
keep informed on and responsive to public
 opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of
management to serve the public interest: helps
 management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change,
serving as an early warning system to help
 anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical
communication as its principle tools.
 This conceptual definition positions the many activities and
goals in public relations practice as a management
 function. It also identifies building and maintaining mutually
beneficial relationships between organizations and
 publics as the moral and ethical basis of the profession. At the
same time, it suggests criteria for determining
 what is and what is not part of the function.
 Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000) define public relations as a
management function that establish and maintains
 mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and
the publics on whom its success or failure
 depends.
 Robert L. Heath also define public relations as a set of
management, supervisory, and technical functions that
 foster an organization's ability to strategically listen to,
appreciate, and respond to those persons whose mutually
 beneficial relationships with the organization are necessary if
it is to achieve its missions and values
 Have you got any similarities among the above definitions?
Well, we hope you have understood that public
 relations is essentially a management function that focuses on
two-way communication and fostering of
 mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and
its internal and external publics. Let’s have a
 look on the modern short hand definitions and check whether
they are similar with the aforementioned once.
Modern Shorthand Definitions

 The British Institute of Public Relations gives a

comprehensive definition of public relations: “A public
 relations is a deliberate, planned, and sustained effort to
establish and maintain mutual understanding between
 an organization and its publics.”
 Public relations has also been defined as
 ü Persuasive communication designed to influence specific
publics.
 ü The winning of public acceptance by acceptable
performance.
 ü Doing good and getting credit for it (Performance then
Recognition)
 ü The science and practice of applying credible media for
favorable communication
 Perhaps the best way to approach a definition of public
relations, according to Sharpe, is to consider it as a
 process that “harmonizes” long term relationships among
individuals and organizations in society. Sharpe
 applies five principles to this process:
Cont…
 1. Honest communication for credibility
 2. Openness and consistency of actions for confidence
 3. Fairness of actions for reciprocity and good will
 4. Continuous two way communication to prevent alienation
and build relationships
 5. Environmental research and evaluation to determine the
actions or adjustments needed for socialharmony.
 This approach recognizes three realties of today’s increasingly
democratic, globally interdependent social system:
 (1) The economic and social stability of an organization
depends greatly on public opinion,
 (2) All people have the right to information that will affect
their lives, and
 (3) unless communication achieves
 continuous, accurate feedback, the organization will not
accurately be able to assess how it is viewed by its publics and
to adjust its actions appropriately.
 Stated another way, in the words of Reddick “Public relations
is the lubricant which makes the segments of an
 order work together with minimum friction and
misunderstanding.” The goal of effective public relations,
then,
 is to harmonize internal and external relationships so that an
organization can enjoy not only public goodwill,
 but also stability and longevity.
 Overall, at its simplest form, public relations is a way to
approach the way in which an organisation wants to
 relate to its many stakeholders. It involves the cultivation of
favourable relations for organizations and products
 with its key publics through the use of a variety of
communications channels and tools. It is as much a specific
 discipline with its own body of knowledge and theories.
The key words to remember in defining public
relations follow:

 Deliberate: Public relations activity is intentional. It is

designed to influence, gain understanding, provide
 information, and obtain feedback (reaction from those affected
by the activity).
 Planned: Public relation activity is organized. Solutions to
problems are discovered and logistics are thought
 out, with the activity taking place over a period of time. It is
systematic, requiring research and analysis.
 Performance: Effective public relations is based on actual
polices and performance. No amount of public
 relations will generate good will and support if the organization
is unresponsive to community concerns.
 Public Interest: The rationale for any public relations activity
is to serve the public interest, and not simply to
 achieve benefits for the organization. Ideally, public relations
activity is mutually beneficial to the organization
 and the public; it is the alignment of the organizations self-
interests with the publics concerns and interests.
 Two-way Communication: Dictionary definitions often give
the impression that public relations consists only
 of the dissemination of informational materials. It is equally
important, however, that the definition include
 feedback from audiences. The ability to listen is an essential
part of communication expertise.
 Management Function: Public relations is most effective
when it is part of the decision making of top
 management. Public relations involves counseling and
problem solving at high levels, not just the realizing of
 information after a decision has been made.
 5.2. Media relations: The mass media in both print and
electronic are the channels through which public
 relations practitioners communicate with the public. This is
why PR practitioners need to need to cultivate and
 maintain good relations with mass media organizations and
other personnel, especially editors, reporters and
 columnists.
 CHAPTER SIX:-MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
 6.1. Oral communication
 Oral communication is the face to face communication
between individuals .It may be in the form of direct talks
 and conversation or the public address .It also includes
telephone calls or talking on the intercom system .It is
 the most effective when settling a dispute among employees.
Advantages of oral communication
 It is direct, simple and time saving device of communication
 It is least expensive form of communication
 It conveys personal relationship, friendliness and develops a
feeling of belongingness
 It removes if there is any misunderstanding between persons
 It lays mutual understanding and confidence
 It allows both parties to participate in a situation where
motivation is important
Disadvantages oral communication

 There is formal record of the communication held

 There is a possibility of distortions of message especially if
the oral message has to pass through a long chain of command
 Lengthy and distant communications cannot be much effective
 It may carry less weight being informal
 The formal authority cannot be transmitted effectively in oral
transactions
 It can be misunderstood and more or less different meanings
might be conveyed by a manner of speaking
6.1.2 BUSINESS SPEECH
 Making a speech is an essential tool that promotes
organizational/or institutional images as well as individual
 prestige. Speech is often made in business or social situations
with a view to informing, advertising, persuading
 or entertaining a limited audience.
 To make a speech more effective, it should be organized in
essential parts, i.e. introduction, body and
 conclusion to appeal to the interests of the listeners.
 A speech may be:
 Narrative Speech: it is concerned with time and action. More
specifically narrative speech is a form of disclose
 which recounts a series of related events in such away as to
develop a central meaning. Examples fables and
 parables
 Explanatory Speech: this type of speech explains about
something by giving important and relevant reasons
 that really explains it.
 Descriptive Speech: this type of speech concerned based on
describing, expressing and persuading idea,
 opinion about something.
 Persuasive Speech: this type of speech specifically focuses on
convincing some one through the force of reason
 and appeal to prejudice, deep seated convictions, hopes and
fear seat. It is able to make some body do or believe
something.
 Business speech can also fall into several categories depending
up on the presentation techniques used to address to a limited
audience. It is thus, important that practicing speakers have
awareness about the following business speech types:
 Impromptu Business Speech: this type of speech delivered to
a limited audience without any preparation of the speaker.
 Extemporaneous Business Speech: this is a well prepared,
rehearsed and outlined speech. In delivering such a type of
business speech, the speaker can refer to important ideas, fact
and figures printed on pieces of paper or cards.
 Memorized Business Speech: the speaker requires a lot of
time for preparation and rehearsal prior to presentation. A
speaker is likely to forget what he/she wants to say due to
stage fright.
 Textual Business Speech: is a well
prepared/researched business speech presented by
reading from printed
 pages. This type of business speech is used when
the issue to be presented is complex in content.
 Guidelines for Effective Speech
 Determine the purpose of speech: the purpose of speech may
be either to inform (aims at increasing the audience’s
awareness and understanding of a subject) or preside (aims to
get the audience to adapt the speaker’s point of view on an
issue.) your audience.
 Know your audience: the speaker have to have an aware
about his audience’s age, size, group,
 knowledge and also religion and ethics.
 Be well organized: the speaker should know all the procedures
regarding to his speech and he should
 know carefully how audience understand the message.
 Research your topic (by using published and unpublished
source): primary sources- observation and
 consulting, and secondary sources- reports and published
research
 Anticipate and prepare for questions from audience
 Practice critically
v Minimize nervousness
 v Establish eye contact with your audience
 v Be honest in what you say
Characteristics of Good Speaker
 v Look at your audience
 v Vary your volume and speed
 v Speak clearly
 v Use appropriate gesture
 v Check your postures
 v Watch and listen for feedback
6.1.3. ACTIVE LISTENING

 Listening is a combination of what you hear, what you

understand, and what you remember. It includes hearing
 or receiving oral stimuli from the environment, connecting or
processing the stimuli into meaningful message,
 and storing message from immediate or delayed retrieval.
 Listening involves five related activities, which most often
occur in sequence:
 Sensing: is physically hearing the message and taking note of
it.
 Interpreting: is deciding, and absorbing what your. As you
listen, you assign meaning to the words according
 to your own value, beliefs, ideas, expectations, roles, needs,
and personal history.
 Evaluating: is forming an opinion about a message.
 Remembering: is storing a message for future reference. As
you listen, retain what you hear by taking notes or
 by making a mental outline of the speaker’s key points.
 Responding: is acknowledging the message by reacting the
speaker in same fashion.
 Types of Listening
 Content listening: it enables as to understand and retain the
message. The goal of content listening is to
 understand and retain information imported by a speaker.
 Critical Listening: is an even more active process. Not only
does it involve listening for information it involves
 analyzing and evaluating information. Listening critically
means listening with the intent of evaluating or
 judging what you hear. It requires a high level of involvement
and concentration.
 Active or Emphatic Listening: is the highest level of
listening. It requires concentration, retention, and
 judgment. More important, it requires empathy (the ability to
put yourself in some one else’s place and
 understand his or her feelings). The goal is to understand the
speaker’s feelings, needs and wants so that you
 can appreciate his or her point of view regardless of whether
you share that perspective.
 Guidelines for Effective Listening
 Listening is a process that can be improved if the receiver
takes an active role. The following guidelines can help you to
improve your listening skills:
 Concentrate on the message: people normally speak at 100 to
200 words a minute. Listeners, however, are
 capable of hearing up to 500 words a minute. This mismatch
between speaking and listening speeds makes it necessary for
people to concentrate diligently in order to listen effectively.
 Determine the purpose of the message: oral message have
purposes, as do written message. As a listener, you
 need to determine the purpose of the oral message so that you
can decide on the mode that you will use when
 listen to message are cautious, skimming, and scanning
listening.
 Keep an open mind: the speaker presents the message from
his/her view point respect this viewpoint by not
 aching your own biases to block what being said.
 Use feedback: is important. The speaker may volunteer where
information he or she receives positive feedback.
 Minimize note taking: you will not be able to concentrate on
listening if you attempt to record everything that is
 said, instead record key words and ideas in outline.
 Analyze the total message: watch the speaker’s action and
facial expressions; listen to his or her tone of voice.
 Don’t talk or interrupt: an individual cannot talk and listen
effectively at the same time.
Cause for Poor Listening
 Baisedness against the speaker (internal distraction): because of
the difference in background, culture,
 behavior, etc
 External distractions: environmental disturbances like: highly
decorated conference rooms, distracting perfume, sitting
arrangement (closer to each other) and etc...
 Thinking speed: if the receiver has potential to listen more than the
words per minute the speaker is speaking, this will create some gap
and can divert the attention of the listener.
 Premature evaluation: if the receiver is in a position to conclude
the speaker’s message after getting a
 hint (little part), his listening focus will decline and become poor.
 Semantic problems: if the speaker uses jargon (technical) words,
the receivers cannot listen actively.
 Delivery style: the volume variation, facial expression… can
influence the listener.
6.1.4. TELEPHONING AND FACE TO FACE COMUNNICATION

 Telephoning: is one of the most frequently performed

activities in offices, and is, in fact, one of the fastest
 means of communication in a business environment. When we
communicate with people by means of office
 telephone, we represent the business organization we are
working for, however insignificant our position may
 be. Thus, when we use the telephone either as a caller or a
receiver for business purposes, our sincerity and
 helpfulness are very much required. On the other hand, any
reflection of insincerity, discourtesy or artificiality
 is likely to bring about negative reaction not only against us as
telephone users but also against the
 organizations we are working for.