Adm. & Bus. Comm Hand Out - 1

Lecture note for the course Mgmt 212
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW

1. Introduction: Communication an overview
Communication is perhaps as old as the human civilization. Its origin can be traced to the growth of the human
society. In the primitive stage of human society, people satisfied their wants, which were limited to the basic
needs for food, clothing & shelter and by their own individual efforts. At that time life was isolated and there
was little communication. But while people hunted for food, they too were hunted by other wild animals. They
lived in constant danger. The common need for protection and security led to group life. Then communication
was evolved in the form of sounds, indications, signals, and expressions. As group life developed, and human
wants continued to increase, forms of communication also developed. Gradually, with the increase in
population, emergence of division of labor and specialization, and birth of exchange economy human beings
had to be in constant communication.
At some stage, the signs and symbols created language. With the growth of business-industry and commerce,
ways of expressing ideas in languages developed. Gradually people were able to shape their attitudes, norms,
values, culture, religion, etc through communication. Science entered the field and new forms of oral, written
and audio visual communication developed. Thus the development of communication is inseparable from the
development of human civilization.
In the present day world of mass production, involving organizations with large number of personnel with their
social and cultural diversifications, and complex industrial operations and influences, communication is of vital
need at every step in industrial and commercial activities.
The word Communication is derived from a Latin word “cummunicare” which means “to share”.
Therefore, the word communication means sharing of ideas, messages and words expressed through a
language, which is easily comprehensible to the listener. Communication starts with a sender, who has a
message to send to the receiver. The sender must encode the message and select a communication channel
that will deliver it to the receiver. In communicating facts, the message may be encoded with words,
numbers, or digital symbols; in communicating feelings; it may be encoded as body language or tone of
voice.
Definitions:
Peter little: communication is the process by which information is transmitted between individuals and/or
organization so that an understanding response results.
W. H. Newman and C. F. summer: Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, emotions by
two or more persons.
Keith Davis: Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to
another.
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American Management Association: Communication is any behavior that results in an exchange of
meaning.
Generally communication is a process that involves the transfer of information and understanding from one
person to another person. Communication is a shared meaning among two or more people through verbal
and non-verbal transactions.
Business communication is a specialized field and branch of general communication. It is hardly possible
to make a basic difference between the two. The process and the principles that regulate them are similar.
Their difference lies in their application to situations. General communication is concerned with many roles
at large. On the other hand business communication is concerned with business activities like internal
business activities: maintaining and improving the morale of employees, giving order to workers,
prescribing methods and procedures, announcing policies and organizational changes, and etc… as well as
external business activities: selling and buying goods and services, reporting the government and
shareholders on the financial condition of the business operations and etc…
Nature/Characteristic of Business communication
 It is not that begins at one time and stops at another.
 It concerns all managers at all level of management.
 It facilitates managerial functions.
 It facilitates managerial roles.
Objectives of Business Communication
 To develop understanding and information among all workers and this is necessary for group efforts.
 To foster an attitude which is necessary for motivation, co-operation and job satisfaction
 To discourage the spread of misinformation and rumors which can cause conflict and tension
 To encourage the subordinates to give ideas and suggestions for improving up on the product or work
environment and taking these suggestions seriously
 To prepare workers for a change in methods of operations by giving them necessary information in
advance
 To improve the labor management relations by keeping the communication channels open and
accessible
 To encourage social relations among workers by encouraging inter-communication
 To develop sound intra organizational and inter organizational relations in order to achieve the desired
business goals
1.2. Significance of Business Communication
 It promotes managerial efficiency
 It is an aid to planning and decision making
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 It strengthens control and operations
 It increases co-operation and understanding
 It is a basis of leadership action
 It develops co-ordination
 It leads to job satisfaction
CHAPTER TWO – THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
2.1 ELEMENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Process of Communication
Sender (communicator): is the source of the message who initiates the communication process. The
sender is the one who has certain ideas, information, feelings, attitudes, intentions, or emotions which he or
she wants to share with the receiver. When you send a message you are the writer or speaker depending on
whether your communication is written or oral.
FEEDBACK
SENDER
CHANNEL RECEIVER
NOISE
Fig. 1 Model of Communication Process

Encoding: is the process of selecting and organizing bits of information into transmissible message
language.
Message: the result of encoding is the message- either verbal or non verbal. When you compose a message,
you need to consider what content to include, how the receiver interpret it and how it affect their relation.
Channel: is the formal medium of transmission of the message.
Decoding: is the process by which the receiver interprets the message and translates it into meaningful
information.
Feed back: is a response from the receiver. It is the process of checking and clarification by asking
questions and repeating the message to ensure that the encoding and decoding results in mutual
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understanding of the message. It is the only way through which the sender can know whether his or her
messages are interpreted as intended or not.
Advantage of feed back
 It makes the communication process two way or bilateral and enhances the accuracy of employee
understanding and performance
 It increases employee satisfaction with their job
Disadvantage of feed back
 It is a time taking activity
 It is difficult to elicit
 Employees do not want to give positive feedback to the management
Noise: is any interfering factor that, if present, can distort the intended message. It can be present in any
element.
2.2 Communication Barriers
The communication must be interpreted and understood in the same way as it was intended to be sent by
the sender, otherwise it will not achieve the desired results and a communication breakdown will occur.
Barriers in communication simply refer to the natural as well as the man made factors that hinder the
process of effective communication. Some of the barriers are:
Difference in Perception: Each office worker is unique and brings to the job unique perception- a way of
interpreting situations based on the individual personal experience. Thus employees’ perception determines
the manner in which they interpret whatever they see or hear.
Difference in Semantics: Semantics is the study of word meanings and their effects on human behaviors.
Since the meaning of words may be interpreted differently by the sender and the receiver, a barrier to
communication may be created.
Difference in Status: Status, or the level of individuals in the organization structure, influences the quality
of communication. Differences in status create communication barriers. Generally, communication between
persons of equal ranks is easier than between a superior and a subordinate.
Difference in Mental Learning (Bias): Bias is a person’s mental learning or inclination. It is a barrier in
face-to-face communication as well as in written communication. Bias may be found when interviewer is
obtaining background information from a job applicant. Bias is often created in written communication
when the readers’ perception of the message is titled in one direction or another.
Difference in organization climate: Some organizations encourage workers to express their opinions
openly and to participate in important decision making activities. On the other hand, some managers are
authoritarian and discourage the participation of employees and deny their freedom of expression.
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Business Jargon: Ineffective oral and written communication is often caused by the use of jargon. Jargon
consists of technical terms and idioms that are peculiar to a special group or activity such as business.
Poor Communication: Lack of skill in writing and speaking obviously prevents the sender of the
messages from encoding his ideas properly so that he gets across to his audience. Both of these skills can
be developed by training and practice. Poor reading and listening skills are also barriers to communication.
Other barriers: time pressure, noise, physical distance…
Strategies to Improve Communication Effectiveness
Major strategies for improving communication effectiveness are the following:
 Create an environment of trust and confidence
 Be clear about the objectives of communication
 The external barriers of defective channels and organizational systems are entirely the management’s
responsibility with in the organization. The internal channels must be kept in good working condition i.e.
the intercoms, notice boards; information meeting must be kept up to date.
 The personal barriers can be overcome by making a conscious effort to learn better methods and by
training for better communication.
 Be sensitive to the communication situation and receiver frame of reference
 Listen emphatically
2.3. Interpersonal Communications and Teamwork
Interpersonal Communication refers to interactions between one person (or group) with another person (or
group) without the ASSISTANCE of a machine. In other words a machine is not interposed in between.
Machine Assisted Communication, however, combines the characteristics of both interpersonal and mass
communication. In this communication situation one or more people are interacting or communicating by
means of a mechanical device or devices with one or more receivers. On the other hand mass
communication refers to the process by which a complex organization with the aid of one or more
machines produces and transmits public messages that are directed at large, heterogeneous and scattered
audiences. We will also present you communication settings along with the eight elements of
communication. Let’s now begin with Interpersonal Communication.
2.2.1 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
In Interpersonal Communication one person (or group) is interacting with another person (or group) without the
aid of a mechanical device. The source /receiver can be one or more individual. Encoding is usually a one-step
process as the source transforms thoughts into speech and or gestures. A variety of channels are available for
use. The receiver can see, hear and perhaps even smell and touch the source. Messages are relatively difficult
for the receiver to terminate and are produced at little expense. Interpersonal messages can be private or public.
Messages can also be pinpointed to their specific targets. For example – Excuse me, Dr… Decoding is also a
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one- process performed by those receivers who can perceive the message. Feedback is immediate and makes
use of visual and auditory channels. Noise can be either semantic or environmental.
2.3 Machine Assisted Interpersonal Communication
It combines characteristics of both interpersonal and mass communication situations. One or more people are
communicating by means of a mechanical device (or devices) with one or more receivers. One of the important
characteristics of machine-assisted interpersonal communication is that it allows the sources and receiver to be
separated by both time and space. The machine can give message permanence by storing it on paper, magnetic
disc, or some other material. The machine can also extend the range of the message by amplifying it and or
/transmitting it over large distances. (E.g. telephone, a letter can be reread several years after it was written and
communication anew.
2.4 Diverse Example of Machine Assisted Communication
E –mail allows people to send messages across in minutes.
People get money out of automatic teller machines by inserting a magnetic card following the machines by
instructions.
Chat rooms and newsgroups on the Internet allow individuals to communicate by typing messages on their
computer for all to see.
An inventor in Philadelphia has perfected the Lawn Buddy message machine in which a five – inch tall animal
arises from a flowerpot and asks a visitor to leave a message.
Telephone companies offer 900-or 976 – lines, where, for a fee, people can hear recorded horoscopes, erotic
fantasies or information regarding the latest Elvis sightings.
CHAPTER THREE:- PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
The application of business communication principles helps to communicate effectively through letters,
memorandums, reports, speeches, telephones, face-to-face conversation, etc.
To compose effective messages you need to apply certain specific communication principles. The basic
business communication principles known as seven C’s of business communication provide guidelines for
choosing content and style of presentation. The seven C’s are as follows:
Completeness:
Your message is complete when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for the reaction you desire.
It is necessary for bringing the desired results without the expense of additional message. As you strive for
completeness, keep the following guidelines in mend:
 Answer all queries
 Give something extra, when desirable
 Check the five W’s and any other essentials. The five W’s are- who, what, where, when, why and any
other essentials like how.
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Conciseness
A concise message saves time and cost for both sender and receiver. Conciseness means saying what you
have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the other C qualities. To achieve conciseness
try to observe the following suggestions:
 Eliminate wordy expressions
 Include only relevant statement
 Avoid unnecessary repetition
Consideration
It means that you prepare every message the recipient in mind and try to put yourself in his or her place. So,
try to visualize your readers with their desires, problems, emotions, and probable reactions and then handle
the matter from point of view. In the following four ways it indicates that you are considerate:
 Focus on “You” instead of “I” or “We”
 Show readers interest/benefit
 Emphasize on positive and pleasant facts
 Apply integrity and ethics
Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, vivid rather than vague and general. So, good
concrete writing and speaking include specific facts and figures with relevant examples. The following
guidelines should help to compose concrete and convincing messages.
 Use specific facts and figures
 Put action in your verbs
 Choose vivid and image building words
Clarity
It means getting your messages across so that receiver understands what you are trying to convey. So make
your message clear by using words that are familiar to your receiver. Here are some specific ways to help
make your message clear:
 Choose short, familiar and conversational words
 Construct effective sentences and paragraphs
 Have an average sentence length around 15 to 20 words and average paragraph length of four to five
lines in the case of letters and 8 to 9 lines in reports
 Achieve appropriate readability and listen ability
 Include examples, illustrations and other visual aids when desire
Courtesy: Courteous sentences/messages help to strengthen present business friendship as well as new
friends. Courtesy stems from sincere “your attitude” It is not merely politeness with insertions of “pleases”
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and “thank you”. To be courteous, considerate communicators should follow these suggestions regarding
the tone of communications.
 Be sincere, thoughtful, and appreciative
 Omit expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle the reader
 Answer mails as promptly as possible
Correctness
Correctness means that the message you are going to send is grammatically correct and considerate
(appreciative). Similarly the message should not certain any insulating statement which may look the
potential customer(s). Therefore to write a correct message bears in mind the following guidelines:
 The message is grammatically correct
 The information is considerate and appreciative
 The message is bias less and impartial
 Proper punctuation and capitalization
CHAPTER FOUR: TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION
4.1 Communication Channels and Functions
As we have seen communication, both oral and written is a predominant form of organizational behavior.
People in today’s organizations spend a great deal of time communicating; the higher they go in the
organizational hierarchy, the more time communication consumes. However, as Peter Drucker points out, all is
not well; “We have more attempts at communications today . . . yet communications has proven as elusive as
the unicorn. The noise level has gone up so fast that no one can really listen anymore to all that babble about
communications. But there is clearly less and less communicating. The communications gap within institutions
and between groups in society has been widening steadily to the point where it threatens to become an
unbridgeable gulf of total misunderstanding.” In short, while people in organizations today spend a lot of time
engaged in communication-related activity, they are not very successful in communicating.
Generally, we have found five basic causes of communication failure.
1. Communication in most organizations is activity-oriented, not results-oriented.
When consulting with hospitals for example, it is our practice to ask the hospital administrator to show us the
hospital’s employee handbook. Then we ask him or her, “Do you feel this is a good employee handbook?
Typically, their answer will be “yes” followed by such reasons as: It has won national awards for design and
layout; it costs us a lot of money to produce; my picture is on the inside cover; consultants helped us to develop
it, and so on. When we then ask, “But does it do what is it supposed to do?” We typically receive a puzzled look
and a long silence in response. Communication is a tool designed to produce some effect upon its receiver. Too
many organizations, however, view communication as something that “ought to be done” losing sight of the
impact their communications should have.
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2. Communication often is one-way
Management frequently assumes that, as long as they are sending messages regularly to the rest of the
organization, they are communicating. They therefore engage exclusively in “downward” communication,
receiving little or no feedback from lower levels of the organizations as a result they often do not know if their
downward messages were received, understood, believed, or approved of by employees, and they cannot adjust
future messages to employees needs or characteristics. In order to be effective, communication in organizations
must flow not only downward, but upward and laterally as well.
3. The impact of communication is not measured
This problem is related to the preceding one. In many organizations, management receives information
feedback. However, no systematic attempt is made to measure the impact of communication in terms of the
objectives or results the communication was supposed to achieve. If , for example, the employee handbook is
designed to inform employees about company benefit programs, actual measures should be taken to determine
how much information employees get and retain about benefit plans by reading that handbook. In effect,
management must clearly define the results they want their communication systems to achieve, and then
regularly measure the extent to which those results have been produced.
4. Communications are not responsive to employee needs.
When defining the objectives of their communication systems, management should first ask employees what
information they want or need. Then they can tailor downward messages to meet those needs. Rarely, for
example, do companies ask new employees what information they would like to receive in the new employee
orientation meetings; rather, they assume that the information they are providing is exactly what the employees
need. When we have interviewed incoming employees about their concerns and desires, we find an entire body
of information is needed that company orientation programs do not provide.
5. The people who implement communication systems lack the necessary communication skills.
Department meetings cannot be effective if the department heads conducting them lack meeting leadership
skills. Employment interviews do not select the best available candidates if the interviewers are unskilled.
Communication systems and opportunities are not enough; the people who use those systems must have skills
as communicators. As the preceding discussion indicates, communication in organizations has tow basic
elements; communication systems (the meetings, publications, conversations and so on in which messages are
transmitted), and communication skills of the people participating in those communication systems.
4.2 Communication Functions
Within each organizational setting, communication performs a variety of functions. One function that occupies
a central role within all organizational systems is information exchange.
I. Information Exchange
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In the broad sense, any organization that does not exchange information with its environment will die. The
organization both effects change in its environment and responds to change in order to survive. Such changes
would not be possible without the possession of considerable information on which to base intelligent behavior.
Thus, the exchange of information serves the basic function of organizational maintenance.
As members of organizations, we must possess adequate information to function productivity on a daily basis.
We must also exchange sufficient information so that our goals are somehow integrated and coordinated with
those of others in the organization. Obviously, the separate rules and tasks of any organization do not exist in a
vacuum. Rather, we must accomplish each task in coordination with other individuals, groups, and departments.
In one of the texts on organizational communication, Haney presents a tragic case involving the
mismanagement of information exchanged in a hospital. In this case a deceased patient who was not
immediately removed from his room was visited by his wife who, upon finding her husband dead, collapsed and
died of a heart attack herself.
This tragedy occurred because rotting nurses in charge of the situation did not exchange clear messages and
failed to notify appropriate authorities the minute they knew their patient had died. Although most instances of
information exchange do not result in such tragic outcomes, the smooth, timely, and undistorted flow of
information remains an important goal of all organizations.
II. Idea and attitude imposition
Information exchange and idea imposition are not distinct. When a supervisor tells us how to replace the paper
in the copying machine, how to fill out grant request forms, or how to deal with a disciplinary problem on the
surface he or she is informing us about how to perform our jobs. But such information clearly does more than
inform. It also persuades that the procedure in question is not only acceptable but often preferred or even
required.
From the time we enter an organization, we are bombarded with ideas, information, and attitudes whose
purpose is to effect some change in us. Whenever we join an organization, we immediately encounter some of
the more common forms of idea and attitude imposition. We may be told succinctly and directly how to
function in our daily jobs and how those jobs fit into the overall organizational plan. At a more subtle level, our
initiation may involve a strategic indoctrination aimed at encouraging us to conform to the values, standards,
and needs of the organization. Schein refers to this latter process as “organizational socialization.”
Although some socialization is probably inevitable and in some sense beneficial. Schein maintains that what
organizations really need are creative people who accept crucial organizational values, but who are richly
diversified in other significant respects. Most healthy companies are filled with professionals, who are united in
their dedication to the organization’s goals of high-quality products, employee satisfaction, and productivity.
Even so their ideas about what precisely constitutes quality, how to keep workers happy, and how to achieve
maximum productivity are probably quite different.
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Although organizations can command a great of conformity, only through a process of mutual organizational
and individual influence is innovation and growth likely to occur in the long run.
III.Evaluation
A third major communication function is evaluation. When we evaluate, we process, interpret, and judge. Each
of us is evaluated before entering the organization through applications and employment interview, and the
notion of evaluation is really inherent in the organization’s hierarchy. Supervisors evaluate their subordinates
just as higher executive judge lower level supervisors. Worker evaluation sheets, memos, organizational
progress reports, interviews, and personal and small group conferences are a few examples of common
organizational evaluation procedures.
IV. Soliciting Feedback
A fourth function of communication is soliciting feedback. Historically, several factors have impeded feedback
in organizations. Generally some employees simply are not interested in communicating to management or
participating in decision making; others are afraid to communicate (fearing reprisals from a management or
ostracism by their peers); still others are unaware that management expects them to communicate; and some
simply believe that management has no interest in their thoughts and concerns or that management will not
respond to them.
Taken together, the communication functions we have outlined influence the effectiveness and efficiency of the
organization. The amount, clarity, and appropriateness of information exchanged, the ability of the organization
to socialize and influence its members, the impact of evaluations, and the success of attempts to solicit feedback
all determine the characteristics, and ultimately the success, of a particular organization. In the next section, we
will review some of the channels that organizations use to achieve these functions.
4.3. Internal and External Communication
4.3.1. External communication refers to communication with outside sources such as customers, suppliers,
professional associations, government organization etc. As the external environment has become more
dynamic and turbulent, regular exchange of information with outside agencies and individuals becomes
essential. Whether by phone, fax, video tape, or letter, much of this communication is carefully
orchestrated, and some occurs informally. Two functional units particularly important in managing the flow
of external messages: the marketing department and the public relation department. Marketing focuses on
selling goods and services, whereas public relations is more concerned with developing the organization’s
overall permutation.
4.3.2. Internal communication takes place within the organization among managers and other personnel
between department, superiors and subordinates. Vertical and horizontal communications take place with in
the organization
Formal and Informal Communication
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Communication in organizations takes two forms: “formal” and Informal”. Formal channel of
communication is established by the management and formally shown in the charts of the organizations .It
is the channel which is deliberately and consciously established. Formal channel is the line of
communication for transmission of messages and information officially within and outside the
organization. The formal communication channel is used to transmit official messages, policies,
procedures, directives, and job instruction….
Formal communication is thus the official chains that determine the flow and direction of official messages
among individuals or divisions in an organization. Formal channels of communication provide for the structured
flow of primarily vertical communication (upward and downward) and secondarily crosswise (horizontal and
diagonal) communication.
Informal channel of communication known, as the grapevine is communication that takes place without
regard to hierarchical or task requirements. Informal communication can be thought of as relating to
personal rather than positional issues. In other words Informal channel or the grapevine does not follow the
formal channels established by the management. This type of communication arises on account of natural
desire of people to communicate each other and is the result of social interaction of people.
Characteristics of Informal Communication
 It is very fast and spontaneous
 It is not entirely reliable
 Its messages are difficult to stop once they get started
 It is accessible to everybody in that organization
 It can be supportive or obstacle to the effort of management
Types of Grapevine Chains
Single strand Chain: In this chain Person “A” tells to a single person “B”, who tells it to a person “C” and
so on
The Gossip Chain: a person being the source of the information transmits to many individuals.
Probability Chain: here individuals are indifferent about to whom they offer information. They tell people
at random and those people intern tell other at random.
Cluster Chain: Here person “A” conveys the information to few selected individuals, some of whom then
inform a few selected individuals.
Downward Communication
When vertical communication flows from a higher level to one or more lower levels in the organization it is
known as downward communication. Downward communication flows from the top of the organization
and carries the message that translates top management planning and decision making into orders that
direct office employee. Some examples of downward communication are:
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 Information related to policies, rules, procedures, objectives, and other type of plans
 Work assignment and directives
 Feedback about work performance
 General information about the organization such as its progress and status
Upward Communication
The vertical flow of communication from, a lower level to higher levels in the organization is called
upward communication. This may take place from the supervisor to middle level manager, from manager to
general manager and then from general manager to board of directors. It moves in the opposite direction
and is based up on the communication demand system designed by management to receive information
from operational level. It helps managers judge the effectiveness of downward communication and enables
them to learn about organizational problems. Major areas of information should be communicated from
lower level through upward communication are:
 The activities of subordinates in terms of their achievement progress and plans
 Unresolved work problems in which subordinates may need help from seniors
 Suggestions (ideas) for improvement in offices or department/organization
 The feelings of subordinates about their jobs, associates, working environment and etc …
Lateral Communication:
It usually follows the pattern of workflow in an organization occurring between members of work groups
between one work group and another between members of departments having the same status. Its main
purpose is to provide a direct channel for organizational co-operation and problem solving.
Diagonal Communication
Diagonal communication refers to interchange of message among two persons located at different levels of
hierarchy and outside the direct chain of command. It serves the purpose of coordination and integration
and involves by passing the chain of command as in the case of horizontal communication. It is used to
speed up information flow to improve understanding and to coordinate for the achievement of
organizational objectives.
From the point of view of human aspect
Intrapersonal communication: is communication with in oneself. It refers to speaking to oneself.
Thinking, encoding, decoding are can be examples. This shows that intrapersonal communication is the
foundation for interpersonal communication and there is no interpersonal communication without
intrapersonal communication.
Interpersonal Communication: is a communication flow from individual to individual in face to face and
group settings. It is a type of communication that exists between or among people.
Verbal and Non-verbal Communication
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Verbal communication can be of two types, oral and written. The main difference between the oral and
written is the time factor. Written communication is slower in preparation, in conveyance (carrying or
transmitting) and in perception (understanding).
Non-verbal Communication: is the process of communication without words. People use nonverbal signals
to support and clarify verbal communication. Generally, nonverbal communication is presented in the
following main categories:
1. Appearance: conveys nonverbal expressions that affect recipient’s attitude towards the verbal
message, even before they read or hear them. It can be of two types:
a. Personal appearance: clothing, hair style, cosmetics, jewelry, neatness, etc…are parts of personal
appearance. They can convey impressions regarding occupation, age, nationality, social and
economic level, etc … depending on circumstances.
b. Appearance of surroundings: it includes office size, location of the office, furnishings, machine
and equipments, wall decorations, floor, lightings, etc…
2. Body language: it includes the following:
a. Facial expression: are (eye and face) especially helpful means of communicating non-verbally.
They can show hidden emotions like anger, annoyance, confusion, enthusiasm, fear, joy, love
interest, sorrow, surprising and uncertainty.
b. Gestures and postures: gestures (traffic and deaf people). Postures convey impression of self
impressions of self confidence, status and interest.
c. Smell and touch: various smell or odors and artificial fragrances on human beings can sometimes
convey emotions and feelings better than spoken words. For example some odor on equipment can
indicate- smoke, fire, decay or dangerous leaks…
Touching people in different ways can silently communicate friendship, approval, anger or other feelings.
3. Silence, Time and Sound:
Silence: can actually cause serious hard feelings, loss of business, loss of sales, sometimes loss of profit
and loss of opportunities.
Time: is important in many ways. So, being on time for appointments, for work each day and for deadlines
communicate favorable nonverbal messages in our culture.
Sound: in addition to speaking person voice, other human sound like clearing throat, language, etc… also
communicate non-verbally. Sometimes nonhuman sounds like bells, cars, trains, airplanes all can be
significant nonverbal communicators.
Channels of nonverbal communication
1. Facial expressions and eye behavior
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The face is the primary site for the expression of emotion, revealing both the type and the intensity of a person’s
feelings. A person’s eyes are especially effective as a tool of communication. They can be used to indicate
attention and interest, to influence others, to regulate interaction and to establish dominance. Although the eyes
and the face are usually reliable sources of meaning, people sometimes manipulate their expressions to simulate
an emotion they do not feel or to mask their true feelings.
2. Gestures and Postures
By moving their bodies people can express both specific and general messages. Many gestures, a wave of the
hand, for example, have a specific and intentional meaning such as “hello” or goodbye.” The other types of
body movement are unintentional and express general messages.
These unconscious signals reveal whether a person feels confident or nervous, friendly or hostile, assertive or
passive, powerful or powerless.
3. Vocal characteristic/tones
The tone and volume of your voice, your accent and speaking pace say a lot about who you are, your
relationship with the audience and the emotions underlying your words.
4. Personal/physical/ appearance
The physical appearance and personal style contribute to our identity. People respond to use on the basis of our
physical attractiveness. Because we see ourselves as others see us. When people think we are capable and
attractive, we feel good about ourselves and this affects our behavior, which in turn affects other people’s
perceptions of us. Our grooming, clothing and our style modify our appearance.
5. Use of time and space
This involves showing respect by being on time. Space also serves as a symbol of status and determines how
comfortable people feel talking each other. Nonverbal communication serves important functions with respect
to the verbal message; it can complement it, regulate it, substitute for it, or accent it.
It is important for the receiver to understand the real message conveyed by the nonverbal communication.
Although verbal and nonverbal communication works together best when they are complementary, nonverbal
communication may take the place of or even contradict formal communication or is misleading. One should
look for nonverbal symbols as well as listen to the literal meaning of a sender’s words; he should particularly be
aware of contradictions of the messages.
CHAPTER FIVE – PUBLIC RELATION
5.1. The publics
A public is any group whose members have a common interest or common values in a particular situation.
Publics differ from one organization to another and the publics of one organization may not be the publics of
another organization. Therefore you have to help your organization to identify its publics.
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According to Wragg (1993), public relations publics or audiences can be divided into four categories which
include:
1. Functional Publics: They are those publics which enable the organization to perform its chosen tasks. These
include its customers, consumers, business firms with which it relates, employees, trade unions which represent
it in its given line of trade or business, suppliers of raw materials and components.
2. Enabling Publics: These are publics which permit the organization to function within the framework of the
society to which it belongs.
Such publics include regulatory bodies (e.g. the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations, Advertising Practitioners
Council of Nigeria, National Broadcasting Commission, etc.), community leaders, politicians and shareholders.
3. Diffused Publics: Within this group are media organizations, pressure groups and local residents. These are
varied audiences and often, especially in the case of the media and pressure groups are avenues to other major
audiences.
4. Normative Publics: This term refers to trade associations and professional bodies, but it could also include
political parties.
Among the four categorizations, the functional publics are usually closest to the organization and may exhibit
the highest level of interaction.
Public Relations Defined
Public relations means different things to different people. Some scholars consider it as a philosophical and
moral concept. Others define it by looking at what public relations does in practice. The basic purpose of public
relations is, more or less the same in all sectors- governments, public and private concerns, and other
institutions.
The following section will give you an idea of public relations and the scope of its operations. Read the
definitions provided by different scholars and compare your definition with them.
Many scholars have tried to define public relations by some of its most visible techniques and tactics, such as
publicity in a newspaper, a television interview with an organizations spokesperson, or the appearance of a
celebrity at a special event.
These people failed to understand that public relations is a process involving many subtle and far reaching
aspects. It includes research and analysis, policy formation, programming, communications and feedback from
numerous publics. Generally speaking, public relations practitioners operate on two distinct levels: as advisers
to their clients or to an organization’s top managements and as technicians who produce and disseminate
messages in multiple media channels.
A number of definitions have been formulated over the years. Rex F Harllow, a pioneer public relations
educator, compiled more than 500 definitions from almost as many sources. After analyzing 472 definitions he
produced a definition that includes both conceptual and operational elements.
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Public relations is the distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines of
communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an organization and its publics; involves
the management of problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public
opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest: helps
management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help
anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as its principle tools.
This conceptual definition positions the many activities and goals in public relations practice as a management
function. It also identifies building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and
publics as the moral and ethical basis of the profession. At the same time, it suggests criteria for determining
what is and what is not part of the function.
Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000) define public relations as a management function that establish and maintains
mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure
depends.
Robert L. Heath also define public relations as a set of management, supervisory, and technical functions that
foster an organization's ability to strategically listen to, appreciate, and respond to those persons whose mutually
beneficial relationships with the organization are necessary if it is to achieve its missions and values.
Have you got any similarities among the above definitions? Well, we hope you have understood that public
relations is essentially a management function that focuses on two-way communication and fostering of
mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and its internal and external publics. Let’s have a
look on the modern short hand definitions and check whether they are similar with the aforementioned once.
Modern Shorthand Definitions
The British Institute of Public Relations gives a comprehensive definition of public relations: “A public
relations is a deliberate, planned, and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between
an organization and its publics.”
Public relations has also been defined as
 Persuasive communication designed to influence specific publics.
 The winning of public acceptance by acceptable performance.
 Doing good and getting credit for it (Performance then Recognition)
 The science and practice of applying credible media for favorable communication.
Perhaps the best way to approach a definition of public relations, according to Sharpe, is to consider it as a
process that “harmonizes” long term relationships among individuals and organizations in society. Sharpe
applies five principles to this process:
1. Honest communication for credibility
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2. Openness and consistency of actions for confidence
3. Fairness of actions for reciprocity and good will
4. Continuous two way communication to prevent alienation and build relationships
5. Environmental research and evaluation to determine the actions or adjustments needed for social
harmony.
This approach recognizes three realties of today’s increasingly democratic, globally interdependent social
system: (1) The economic and social stability of an organization depends greatly on public opinion, (2) All
people have the right to information that will affect their lives, and (3) unless communication achieves
continuous, accurate feedback, the organization will not accurately be able to assess how it is viewed by its
publics and to adjust its actions appropriately.
Stated another way, in the words of Reddick “Public relations is the lubricant which makes the segments of an
order work together with minimum friction and misunderstanding.” The goal of effective public relations, then,
is to harmonize internal and external relationships so that an organization can enjoy not only public goodwill,
but also stability and longevity.
Overall, at its simplest form, public relations is a way to approach the way in which an organisation wants to
relate to its many stakeholders. It involves the cultivation of favourable relations for organizations and products
with its key publics through the use of a variety of communications channels and tools. It is as much a specific
discipline with its own body of knowledge and theories.
The key words to remember in defining public relations follow:
Deliberate: Public relations activity is intentional. It is designed to influence, gain understanding, provide
information, and obtain feedback (reaction from those affected by the activity).
Planned: Public relation activity is organized. Solutions to problems are discovered and logistics are thought
out, with the activity taking place over a period of time. It is systematic, requiring research and analysis.
Performance: Effective public relations is based on actual polices and performance. No amount of public
relations will generate good will and support if the organization is unresponsive to community concerns.
Public Interest: The rationale for any public relations activity is to serve the public interest, and not simply to
achieve benefits for the organization. Ideally, public relations activity is mutually beneficial to the organization
and the public; it is the alignment of the organizations self-interests with the publics concerns and interests.
Two-way Communication: Dictionary definitions often give the impression that public relations consists only
of the dissemination of informational materials. It is equally important, however, that the definition include
feedback from audiences. The ability to listen is an essential part of communication expertise.
Management Function: Public relations is most effective when it is part of the decision making of top
management. Public relations involves counseling and problem solving at high levels, not just the realizing of
information after a decision has been made.
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5.2. Media relations: The mass media in both print and electronic are the channels through which public
relations practitioners communicate with the public. This is why PR practitioners need to need to cultivate and
maintain good relations with mass media organizations and other personnel, especially editors, reporters and
columnists.
CHAPTER SIX:-MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
6.1. Oral communication
Oral communication is the face to face communication between individuals .It may be in the form of direct talks
and conversation or the public address .It also includes telephone calls or talking on the intercom system .It is
the most effective when settling a dispute among employees.
Advantages of oral communication
It is direct, simple and time saving device of communication
It is least expensive form of communication
It conveys personal relationship, friendliness and develops a feeling of belongingness
It removes if there is any misunderstanding between persons
It lays mutual understanding and confidence
It allows both parties to participate in a situation where motivation is important
Disadvantages oral communication
There is formal record of the communication held
There is a possibility of distortions of message especially if the oral message has to pass through a long
chain of command
Lengthy and distant communications cannot be much effective
It may carry less weight being informal
The formal authority cannot be transmitted effectively in oral transactions
It can be misunderstood and more or less different meanings might be conveyed by a manner of
speaking
6.1.2 BUSINESS SPEECH
Making a speech is an essential tool that promotes organizational/or institutional images as well as individual
prestige. Speech is often made in business or social situations with a view to informing, advertising, persuading
or entertaining a limited audience.
To make a speech more effective, it should be organized in essential parts, i.e. introduction, body and
conclusion to appeal to the interests of the listeners.
A speech may be:
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Narrative Speech: it is concerned with time and action. More specifically narrative speech is a form of disclose
which recounts a series of related events in such away as to develop a central meaning. Examples fables and
parables
Explanatory Speech: this type of speech explains about something by giving important and relevant reasons
that really explains it.
Descriptive Speech: this type of speech concerned based on describing, expressing and persuading idea,
opinion about something.
Persuasive Speech: this type of speech specifically focuses on convincing some one through the force of reason
and appeal to prejudice, deep seated convictions, hopes and fear seat. It is able to make some body do or believe
something.
Business speech can also fall into several categories depending up on the presentation techniques used to
address to a limited audience. It is thus, important that practicing speakers have awareness about the following
business speech types:
Impromptu Business Speech: this type of speech delivered to a limited audience without any preparation of
the speaker.
Extemporaneous Business Speech: this is a well prepared, rehearsed and outlined speech. In delivering such a
type of business speech, the speaker can refer to important ideas, fact and figures printed on pieces of paper or
cards.
Memorized Business Speech: the speaker requires a lot of time for preparation and rehearsal prior to
presentation. A speaker is likely to forget what he/she wants to say due to stage fright.
Textual Business Speech: is a well prepared/researched business speech presented by reading from printed
pages. This type of business speech is used when the issue to be presented is complex in content.
Guidelines for Effective Speech
 Determine the purpose of speech: the purpose of speech may be either to inform (aims at increasing the
audience’s awareness and understanding of a subject) or preside (aims to get the audience to adapt the
speaker’s point of view on an issue.) your audience.
 Know your audience: the speaker have to have an aware about his audience’s age, size, group,
knowledge and also religion and ethics.
 Be well organized: the speaker should know all the procedures regarding to his speech and he should
know carefully how audience understand the message.
 Research your topic (by using published and unpublished source): primary sources- observation and
consulting, and secondary sources- reports and published research
 Anticipate and prepare for questions from audience
 Practice critically
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 Minimize nervousness
 Establish eye contact with your audience
 Be honest in what you say
Characteristics of Good Speaker
 Look at your audience
 Vary your volume and speed
 Speak clearly
 Use appropriate gesture
 Check your postures
 Watch and listen for feedback
6.1.3. ACTIVE LISTENING
Listening is a combination of what you hear, what you understand, and what you remember. It includes hearing
or receiving oral stimuli from the environment, connecting or processing the stimuli into meaningful message,
and storing message from immediate or delayed retrieval.
Listening involves five related activities, which most often occur in sequence:
Sensing: is physically hearing the message and taking note of it.
Interpreting: is deciding, and absorbing what your. As you listen, you assign meaning to the words according
to your own value, beliefs, ideas, expectations, roles, needs, and personal history.
Evaluating: is forming an opinion about a message.
Remembering: is storing a message for future reference. As you listen, retain what you hear by taking notes or
by making a mental outline of the speaker’s key points.
Responding: is acknowledging the message by reacting the speaker in same fashion.
Types of Listening
Content listening: it enables as to understand and retain the message. The goal of content listening is to
understand and retain information imported by a speaker.
Critical Listening: is an even more active process. Not only does it involve listening for information it involves
analyzing and evaluating information. Listening critically means listening with the intent of evaluating or
judging what you hear. It requires a high level of involvement and concentration.
Active or Emphatic Listening: is the highest level of listening. It requires concentration, retention, and
judgment. More important, it requires empathy (the ability to put yourself in some one else’s place and
understand his or her feelings). The goal is to understand the speaker’s feelings, needs and wants so that you
can appreciate his or her point of view regardless of whether you share that perspective.
Guidelines for Effective Listening
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Listening is a process that can be improved if the receiver takes an active role. The following guidelines can
help you to improve your listening skills:
Concentrate on the message: people normally speak at 100 to 200 words a minute. Listeners, however, are
capable of hearing up to 500 words a minute. This mismatch between speaking and listening speeds makes it
necessary for people to concentrate diligently in order to listen effectively.
Determine the purpose of the message: oral message have purposes, as do written message. As a listener, you
need to determine the purpose of the oral message so that you can decide on the mode that you will use when
listen to message are cautious, skimming, and scanning listening.
Keep an open mind: the speaker presents the message from his/her view point respect this viewpoint by not
aching your own biases to block what being said.
Use feedback: is important. The speaker may volunteer where information he or she receives positive feedback.
Minimize note taking: you will not be able to concentrate on listening if you attempt to record everything that is
said, instead record key words and ideas in outline.
Analyze the total message: watch the speaker’s action and facial expressions; listen to his or her tone of voice.
Don’t talk or interrupt: an individual cannot talk and listen effectively at the same time.
Cause for Poor Listening
 Baisedness against the speaker (internal distraction): because of the difference in background, culture,
behavior, etc
 External distractions: environmental disturbances like: highly decorated conference rooms, distracting
perfume, sitting arrangement (closer to each other) and etc...
 Thinking speed: if the receiver has potential to listen more than the words per minute the speaker is
speaking, this will create some gap and can divert the attention of the listener.
 Premature evaluation: if the receiver is in a position to conclude the speaker’s message after getting a
hint (little part), his listening focus will decline and become poor.
 Semantic problems: if the speaker uses jargon (technical) words, the receivers cannot listen actively.
 Delivery style: the volume variation, facial expression… can influence the listener.
6.1.4. TELEPHONING AND FACE TO FACE COMUNNICATION
Telephoning: is one of the most frequently performed activities in offices, and is, in fact, one of the fastest
means of communication in a business environment. When we communicate with people by means of office
telephone, we represent the business organization we are working for, however insignificant our position may
be. Thus, when we use the telephone either as a caller or a receiver for business purposes, our sincerity and
helpfulness are very much required. On the other hand, any reflection of insincerity, discourtesy or artificiality
is likely to bring about negative reaction not only against us as telephone users but also against the
organizations we are working for.
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Suggestion for Effective Telephoning (one to one)
Preplanning by a caller:
 Know the specific purpose of your call
 Know the name and occupation (if pertinent) of the person you are calling
 Consider the best time to phone, from the standpoint of that person and of your company
 Plan your opening statement
 Jot down the questions you want to ask. Try to limit your call to one main point.
 Have paper and pen handy for note-taking also place near the phone any information for reference during
the conversation.
 Behavior during the telephone conversation
 When you are the caller
 Introduce yourself
 If the person you are calling is not in, ask the best time to reach that person or you can leave a
message.
 When you answer a phone call:
With a clear pleasant voice answer promptly, usually with your name and department. On receiving incoming
calls, we should always be ready to answer the phone call as promptly as possible with a friendly and warm
tone. Under no circumstances should we make callers on the hold for more than a few seconds.
Face-to-face Communication
Face-to-face interaction is simply interaction that occurs in the presence of two or more people. Face-to-
face oral communication may mostly occur in the form of one-to-one or one-to-many business conversational
situations.
Apparently, business etiquette requires that certain formalities should be consistently observed when people
are involved in the process of inter-personal communication that is in face-to-face conversation. This category
of oral communication may take the form of introductions, greetings, invitation, requests for information,
offering to help, making apologies, etc…
A successful group conducted by mail or by phone would be much less likely because of the lack of instant
feedback and the absence of nonverbal cues to meaning. But the above reasons put face-to-face communication
the most advantageous.
In opening face-to-face conversation the following communication structures could be used by individuals:
“Good morning” or “Good afternoon” or “How do you do?”
For make polite communication responses, we can use the following structure “Good morning, may I help
you?” or “Good morning, what can I do for you?”
6.1.5. INTERVIEW
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The word ‘interview’ is derived from the word ‘intrigue’ meaning right between. Interview means any planned
oral conversation with a specific purpose involving two or more people. It is a planned conversation with
predetermined purpose that involves the asking and answering of question.
Types of Interview
The various types of interviews call for different communication skills
 Job interviews: the job candidate wants to learn about the position and the organization the employer wants
to learn about the applicant’s abilities and experience both hope to make a good impression and to establish
rapport.
 Information interviews: the interviewer seeks facts that bear on a decision or contribute to basic
understanding. Information flows manly in one direction. One person asks a list of questions that must be
covered and listens to the answers supplied by the other person.
 Pervasive interviews: one person tells another about a new idea, product, or service and explains why the
other should act on the recommendations pervasive interviews are often associated with, but are certainly not
limited to selling.
 Exit interviews: the interviewer tries to understand why the interviewee is leaving the organization or
transferring to another department or division.
 Evaluation interviews: a supervisor periodically gives an employee feed back on his or her performance. The
supervisor and the employee discuss progress toward predetermined standards or goals and evaluate areas that
require improvement
 Counseling interviews: a supervisor talks with an employee about personal problems that are interfering with
work performance. The interviewee is concerned with the welfare of both the employee and the organization.
 Conflict-resolution interviews: two competing people or groups of people explore their problems and
attitudes. The goal is to bring the two parties closer together, case adjustments in perceptions and attitudes, and
create a more productive climate.
 Disciplinary Interviews: a supervisor tries to correct the behavior of an employee who has ignored the
organization’s rules and regulations. The interviewer tries to get the employee to see the reason for the rules and
to agree to comply
 Termination interviews: a supervisor informs an employee of the reasons for the termination. The
interviewer tries to avoid involving the company in legal action and tries to maintain as positive a relationship
as possible with the interviewee.
General guidelines to be followed in all types of interviews
Most interviews consists the following 3 things. These are
Planning the interview
As an interviewer you are in charge of setting the goals and establishing question before the interview begins
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Determine goals for the interview: make sure that why the interview is take place (determine the primary
and secondary goals)
Consider the approach or strategy that will be best to achieve your goals: the considerations involve
interview’s needs, goals and interests as well as your own.
Choose appropriate questions: Before the interview, review and write down key questions and content areas
that you want to cover. The types of questions that can be used are:
 Open ended questions: Invite the interviewee to offer an opinion, not just a yes no, or one-word answer.
“What do you think your company wants most from its suppliers?”
 Direct open ended questions: You have some what more control over the interview, but you still give the
other person some freedom in framing a response. This form is good to use when you want to get a specific
conclusion or recommendation from some one, for example, “What would you do to improve customer
satisfaction in the southern region?”
 Closed-ended questions require yes or no answers or call for short response. “What is your grade part
average?”
 Restatement questions: questions that mirror a respondent’s previous answer. They invite the respondent to
expand on an answer “You said that you dislike eating injera. Is that correct?”
Establish an atmosphere in keeping with your goals: decide on that the last suitable and effective of your
goals
Choose the most appropriate seating arrangement: the place chosen for interview must be appropriately
quiet comfortable and free of distracting and interruptions.
Conducting the interview

Establish a pleasant atmosphere begin with sincere. Begin with sincere, pleasant comments that establish
harming and good will.
Review that agenda: state that purpose of the interview
Listen attentively. Active listing is essential.
Percent questions in language that fellows that seven c’s principles
Clarity actions to be taken after the interview: let interviewee know that will happen next. Work to
achieve agreement on action to be taken what, when, why, where , by whom and how.
End the interview sincerely
Evaluating the interview (follow-up after the interview)
6.1.6. MEETING
A business meeting is a gathering where purposive discourage occurs among three or more people who
exchange information on a common topic or problem, for better understanding or for solving a problem
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Types of meeting
Information exchange meetings
There may be a meeting where department managers present their progressive reports including their problems
and challenges (bilateral comm.)
Information giving meeting
The top management may prepare a meeting in order to communicate some new amendments and policies to
officials of the org. (unidirectional comm.)
Fact finding and problem solving meetings
First a problem is perceived in an organization, and there may be meeting arrangement to identify the source
(cause) of the problem and to solve the problem.
Preparation meeting
Planning steps before the meeting
 Determine the purpose
 Decide who should participate
 Arrange for meeting date, time , place
 Announce agenda: Agenda means a list of things to be done at meeting
 Take care of physical arrangements
The Role of Chair person
Before the meeting
 Plan the meeting agenda
 Preparing the location: decide where you wilt hold the meeting and reserve the location
 During the meeting
 Be on time and started the meeting
 He plays facilitating role
 After the meeting
 The chairperson has to be evaluating the meeting. The final common negotiation decision must
conclude.
Minutes
Consists of written book or sheet, are record of the proceedings and resolutions passed at a meeting. It contains
the date, place, members, present proposals and decisions taken by way of resolution.
6.2.WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Written communication occurs through a variety of means such as business letters, reports memos, instructions,
rules and regulations, policy manuals, information bulletins, etc. In many cases considerable time and effort are
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expended in preparing written communication. Written communication ensures that every one concerned has
the same information and it provides a permanent record for future reference
Advantages of written communication
It serves as a permanent record for future reference
It reduces the possibility of misunderstanding and misinterpretation
It is the easy method of providing detailed information
It is reliable for transmitting lengthy statistical data
It informs formal authoritative action
It can be evaluated and checked for accuracy
Disadvantages written communication
It may be more time consuming for lengthy reports
It is the part of red tap’s and bureaucratic system of control
There is no guarantee that it will be received and read by the person concerned. It may be lost in transit
or may reach in the hands of irrelevant person concerned.
It does not provide opportunity for immediate response
It fails to convey personal feelings and hence does not create cooperative spirit
It leads to excessive formality in personal relations
6.2.1 Business Letter
Business letters are purposeful internal or external communications designed to communicate business
messages or information between the letter producer and the reader or the supplier and the potential customer.
Requirements of a good business letter

A good business letter should meet the following requirements:
 A business letter should be communicative, that is to say the message or information the letter is to carry
should be readily understandable by the reader
 A business letter has standard and supplemental parts that should be appropriately used.
The various standard and supplemental parts are as the following:
1. Letter Heading: this standard letter part identifies the name of the business establishment together with the
postal and telephone, fax, etc. addresses of the sender of the letter.
2. Message Date Line: this is a letter part that indicates the date, the month and the year in which the letter is
written.
3. Inside Address: this part carries the postal, telephone, fax, etc. addresses of the receiver of the business
letter.
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4. Salutation: this part of a business letter is a simple expression of greeting and appears beneath the inside
address. The salutation is often designed based on the first line of the inside address.
5. Message Heading/subject line: it is meant to convey the reader the central idea or the theme of the letter in a
few logically arranged communicative words.
6. Body of the Letter: is the subject matter of the letter.
7. Complimentary Closures: also known as subscription, are simple expressions of compliments positioned
immediately following the concluding paragraph of a business letter. Some of the widely used
complimentary closures are: ‘yours faithfully’, ‘yours truly’, ‘sincerely yours’…
8. Signature: this part of a business letter carries the signer’s or writer’s signature followed by his/her job title
in succession.
9. Identification initials: in contemporary business letter writing, these initials are supposed to correspond to
the first letters of the full name of the person/secretary shouldering the responsibility of typing out the letter,
and are represented by small letters.
10. Attention Line: is the first supplemental letter part that appears above the salutation. The purpose of this
letter part is to enable an executive to re-address the letter to the concerned authority in the same
organization.
11. Post Script (Ps.): refers to any forgotten essential that must be included in the body of a business letter. It is
represented by Ps and is printed following the signature are of the letter.
12. Enclosure Notations: these are standard notations which refer to important materials that need to be attached
with the original letter.
13. Copy Notations: are standard abbreviations which refer to copies of letters that need to be sent to heads of
offices or individuals concerned to make them become aware of the issues that the letters communicate.
Sample Business Letter:
Gateway Training Center

P. O. Box 3355
Awassa, Ethiopia
20th March, 2006

IBM computer Manufacturing Company
New York, USA
Attention: the sales manager
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Dear Sir
Subject: Letter of enquiry, dated 1st March, 2006
We are planning to launch practical computer training program in the coming academic year. We then
require 100 personal computers and 2000 high density diskettes for the training program.
Could you, therefore, supply the items on the usual trade terms?
Yours Sincerely
Eshetu S.
General Manager
abc
Encls. Details of prices and information brochure
Cc. Copy to administrative and finance manager
Ps. please supply us two laser jet printers
Types of Business Letters
Letter of enquiry: are designed by the enquirer with the aim to provide with business information she/he is
interested in. Thus, such letters, often request for price list, catalogue, brochures, reservation, or other business
service.
Letter of order: is deigned by a potential customer with a view to placing an order for a certain commodity
from a prospective supplier. When designing a letter of order that has to do with foreign trade the letter write is
required to include essential details such as quantity and type of specification, mode of transport, type of freight,
insurance, type of payment and delivery date.
Claim/complaint letters: is written when a customer has a cause for complaint. A complaint may arise when a
customer feels that he/she has received a wrong order, or inferior quality or merchandise of different quality.
Letter of Adjustment: are positive replies to complaints made by potential suppliers. These letters are
purposefully designed by suppliers with the aim of fully or partially adjusting the complaints made by potential
customer.
Letter of credit: most of the time, trade could be carried out under terms of credit. Thus letters of credit will be
of paramount significance should you want to do business with a supplier on credit.
Letter of acknowledgement: is designed by a prospective supplier to acknowledge the receipt of a letter of
order sent by a potential customer.
Letter of recommendation: convey information about a job candidate or about someone applying to a college
or university.
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Sales letters: this letter written to a potential customer in order to activate them to a company’s products. Its
aim is to increase awareness of potential customers.
Inviting Tender: tenders are advertised in news papers, magazines, etc inviting prospective sellers of services
and goods to quote their rates for doing a job or supplying goods specified in the notice.
Application Letter as one type of personal letter, can be solicited (invited application) and unsolicited
(applications for job that are not advertised)
In writing application letter remember to include:
Name of the magazine from which you read the vacancy
Emphasize your personal quality and skill
Explain your past experience (if any), or tall your educational background
Resume /Curriculum Vitae (CV)
A resume is a structured, written summary of a person’s education, employment, background and job
qualifications. It is a document containing supportive information and is enclosed to the application letter. It
includes: personal data (name, age, sex, nationality, date of birth, personal address), educational background
(name of elementary school, high school, college/university), special training (if any), work experience, hobbies
and references.
6.2.3 MEMORANDUMS (MEMO)
The memorandum is a kind of short/informal report, and is a means of communication widely applied by
management for internal communication purpose. A memorandum is purposely designed either to communicate
policies to low level authorities or rank, on the other hand, and the present factual information to top
management or to assist in decision making or problem solving, on the other.
As internal mean of communication, memorandum can be thus move:
 Downward from top management to low level officials in an organization carrying policy guidelines and
procedural statements.
 Upward from low level officials to top management to assists in problem solving and decision making
process.
30

Adm. & Bus. Comm Hand Out - 1

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Adm. & Bus. Comm Hand Out - 1

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Lecture note for the course Mgmt 212

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW

Fig. 1 Model of Communication Process

Conducting the interview

Requirements of a good business letter

Gateway Training Center

20th March, 2006

Attention: the sales manager

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