18EEC305T

POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

UNIT 1
Reference Books :
1.Badri Ram-Power system protection and
switchgear.
2.V.K.Metha-Principles of power system.

1
 Introduction
• The importance of electric supply in everyday life has
reached such a stage that it is desirable to protect the power
system from harm during fault conditions and to ensure
maximum continuity of supply.
• For this purpose, means must be provided to switch on or
off generators, transmission lines, distributors and other
equipment under both normal and abnormal conditions.
• The apparatus used for switching, controlling and
protecting the electrical circuits and equipment is known as
switchgear.
• A switchgear essentially consists of switching and
protecting devices such as switches, fuses, circuit breakers,
relays etc
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• During normal operation, switchgear permits to
switch on or off generators, transmission lines,
distributors and other electrical equipment.
• On the other hand, when a failure (e.g. short circuit)
occurs on any part of power system, a heavy current
flows through the equipment, threatening damage to
the equipment and interruption of service to the
customers.
• However, the switchgear detects the fault and
disconnects the unhealthy section from the system. In
this way, switchgear protects the system from the
damage and ensures continuity of supply.

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 FAULT
Any abnormal operating state of a power system is known as
FAULT. Faults in general consist of short circuits as well as
open circuits. Open circuit faults are less frequent than short
circuit faults, and often they are transformed in to short
circuits by subsequent events.
Short circuit fault- current
• Three phase faults (with or without earth connection)
• Two phase faults (with or without earth connection)
• Single phase to earth faults
Open circuit fault- voltage
• Single Phase open Circuit
• Two phase open circuit
• Three phase open circuit
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• Damage to the equipment due to abnormally large and
unbalanced currents and low voltages produced by the
short circuits
• Explosions may occur in the equipments which have
insulating oil, particularly during short circuits. This
may result in fire and hazardous conditions to
personnel and equipments
• Individual generators with reduced voltage in a power
station or a group of generators operating at low
voltage may lead to loss of synchronism, subsequently
resulting in islanding.
• Risk of synchronous motors in large industrial
premises falling out of step and tripping out.
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 Nature and causes of faults
• Breaking of conductors
• Failure of insulation
• Mechanical failure, accidents, excessive internal and
external stresses.
• The impedance of the path in the fault is low and the
fault currents are comparatively large.
• When a fault occurs on a system, the voltages of the
three phases become unbalanced. As the fault currents
are large, the apparatus may get damaged. The flow of
power is diverted towards the fault which affects the
supply to the neighboring zone.
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08/29/2022 7
08/29/2022 8
 Types of Faults
Symmetrical faults: These are very severe faults
and occur infrequently in the power systems. These
are also called as balanced faults and are of two
types namely line to line to line to ground (L-L-L-G)
and line to line to line (L-L-L).

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 Unsymmetrical faults: These are very common
and less severe than symmetrical faults. There are
mainly three types namely line to ground (L-G),
line to line (L-L) and double line to ground (LL-G)
faults.

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08/29/2022 11
08/29/2022 12
 Fault Statistics

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 Protective Relays
• A protective relay is a device that detects
the fault and initiates the operation of the
circuit breaker to isolate the defective
element from the rest of the system.
• The relays detect the abnormal conditions
in the electrical circuits by constantly
measuring the electrical quantities which
are different under normal and fault
conditions.
• The electrical quantities which may
change under fault conditions are voltage,
current, frequency and phase angle.
VKM16
 Circuit breakers
• When a short circuit occurs on the system, heavy current
flowing through the equipment may cause considerable
damage. In order to interrupt such heavy fault currents,
automatic circuit breakers (or simply circuit breakers) are
used.
• A circuit breaker is a switchgear which can open or close
an electrical circuit under both normal and abnormal
conditions. Even in instances where a fuse is adequate, as
regards to breaking capacity, a circuit breaker may be
preferable.
• It is because a circuit breaker can close circuits, as well as
break them without replacement and thus has wider range
of use altogether than a fuse.
08/29/2022 17
 Protective Devices Comparison
• Circuit Breaker v/s Relay
• Relays are like human brain; circuit breakers
are like human muscle.
• Relays ? make decisions? Based on settings.
• Relays send signals to circuit breakers. Based
the sending signals circuit breakers will
open/close.

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A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig

VKM19
The relay circuit connections can be divided
into three parts viz.
(i) First part is the primary winding of a
current transformer (C.T.) which is
connected in series with the line to be
protected.
(ii) Second part consists of secondary
winding of C.T. and the relay operating coil.
(iii) Third part is the tripping circuit which
may be either a.c. or d.c. It consists of a
source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker and the relay stationary contacts.

VKM20
• When a short circuit occurs at point F on the
transmission line, the current flowing in the
line increases to an enormous value.
• This results in a heavy current flow through
the relay coil, causing the relay to operate by
closing its contacts. This in turn closes the
trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit
breaker open and isolating the faulty section
from the rest of the system.
• In this way, the relay ensures the safety of
the circuit equipment from damage and
normal working of the healthy portion of the
system.
VKM21
Fundamental Requirements of
Protective Relaying:
In order that protective relay system may
perform the function satisfactorily, it
should have the following qualities :
(i) Selectivity
(ii) Speed
(iii) Sensitivity
(iv) Reliability
(v) Simplicity
(vi) Economy

VKM22
Selectivity:
It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that
part of the system in trouble and disconnect the faulty part
without disturbing the rest of the system.

Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty

section as fast as possible for the following reasons :

(a) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to

carry the fault currents for a long time.

(b) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the

system voltage. If the faulty section is not disconnected
quickly, then the low voltage created by the fault may shut
down consumers’ motors and the generators on the system
may become unstable.

(c) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of

development of one type of fault into the other more severe
type. VKM23
Sensitivity:
It is the ability of the relay system to operate with
low value of actuating quantity.

Reliability:
It is the ability of the relay system to operate under
the pre-determined conditions.
Without reliability, the protection would be rendered
largely ineffective and could even become a liability.

Simplicity:
The relaying system should be simple so that it can
be easily maintained.
Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The
simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its
reliability.
VKM24
Economy:
The most important factor in the choice of a
particular protection scheme is the economic
aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to
use an ideal scheme of protection and a
compromise method has to be adopted.
 As a rule, the protective gear should not cost
more than 5% of total cost. However, when the
apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance
(e.g. generator, main transmission line etc.),
economic considerations are often subordinated to
reliability.

VKM25
ZONES OF PROTECTION
A power system contains generators, transformers, bus
bars, transmission and distribution lines, etc.

 There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of

equipment or element of the power system, such as generator
protection, transformer protection, transmission line
protection, bus bar protection, etc.

Thus, a power system is divided into a number of zones for

protection.

A protective zone covers one or at the most two elements of

a power system.

The protective zones are planned in such a way that the

entire power system is collectively covered by them, and
thus, no part of the system is left unprotected.

BR26
 Zones of Protection
• An electric power system is divided into several zones of protection.
Each zone of protection, contains one or more components of a power
system in addition to two circuit breakers.
• When a fault occurs within the boundary of a particular zone, then the
protection system responsible for the protection of the zone acts to
isolate (by tripping the Circuit Breakers) every equipment within that
zone from the rest of the system.
• The circuit Breakers are inserted between the component of the zone and
the rest of the power system. Thus, the location of the circuit breaker
helps to define the boundaries of the zones of protection.
• Different neighboring zones of protection are made to overlap each
other, which ensure that no part of the power system remains without
protection. However, occurrence of the fault with in the overlapped
region will initiate a tripping sequence of different circuit breakers so
that the minimum necessary to disconnect the faulty element
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BR28
Adjacent protective zones must overlap each other,
failing which a fault on the boundary of the zones may
not lie in any of the zones (this may be due to errors in
the measurement of actuating quantities, etc.), and
hence no circuit breaker would trip.

Thus, the overlapping between the adjacent zones is

unavoidable.

If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly

protected scheme, more circuit breakers than the
minimum necessary to isolate the faulty element of the
system would trip.

A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the

probability of faults in this region and consequently,
tripping of too many breakers does not occur
frequently.
29
PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION
There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs
in a particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to
isolate the faulty element.

The primary relay is the first line of defense. If due to any reason,
the primary relay fails to operate, there is a back-up protective
scheme to clear the fault as a second line of defense.

The back-up relays are made independent of those factors which

might cause primary relays to fail.

A back-up relay operates after a time delay to give the primary relay
sufficient time to operate.

When a back-up relay operates, a larger part of the power system is

disconnected from the power source, but this is unavoidable.

As far as possible, a back-up relay should be placed at a different

station. Sometimes, a local back-up is also used. It should be located
in such a way that it does not employ components (VT, CT, measuring
unit, etc.) common with the primary relays which are to be backed up.
BR30
There are three types of back-up relays:
(i) Remote back-up
(ii) Relay back-up
(iii)Breaker back-up

1. Remote Back-up
When back-up relays are located at a neighboring
station, they back-up the entire primary protective
scheme which includes the relay, circuit breaker, VT, CT
and other elements, in case of a failure of the primary
protective scheme.

It is the cheapest and the simplest form of back-up

protection and is a widely used back-up protection for
transmission lines.

31
2. Relay Back-up
This is a kind of a local back-up in which an additional relay is
provided for back-up protection.
It trips the same circuit breaker if the primary relay fails and
this operation takes place without delay.
Though such a back-up is costly, it can be recommended
where a remote back-up is not possible.
 For back-up relays, principles of operation that are different
from those of the primary protection as desirable. They should
be supplied from separate current and potential transformers.
3. Breaker Back-up
This is also a kind of a local back-up.
This type of a back-up is necessary for a bus bar system where
a number of circuit breakers are connected to it.
When a protective relay operates in response to a fault but the
circuit breaker fails to trip, the fault is treated as a bus bar fault.
In such a situation, it becomes necessary that all other circuit
breakers on that bus bar should trip.
After a time-delay, the main relay closes the contact of a back-
up relay which trips all other circuit breakers on the bus if the
proper breaker does not trip within a specified time after its tripBR32
coil is energized.
 % of failures of different power system
protection equipments:
The causes of failures of protective scheme may be due to the
failure of various elements, as mentioned in Table. The
probability of failures is shown against each item.

33
Unit and Non-Unit Protection Scheme
Protection schemes can be divided into two major
groupings:
a)    Unit Protection Schemes
b)    Non-unit Protection Schemes
a) Unit Protection Scheme: 
 Unit type schemes protect a specific area of the
system i.e. a transformer, transmission line,
generator or bus bar.
 The unit protection schemes are based on
Kirchhoff’s Current Law – the sum of the currents
entering an area of the system must be zero. Any
deviation from this must indicate an abnormal
current path.
 In these schemes, the effects of any disturbance or
operating condition outside the area of interest are
totally ignored
OL34
To design protection systems that respond only to
fault conditions occurring within a clearly defined
zone. This type of protection system is known as unit
protection.

Unit protection can be applied throughout a power

system and, since it does not involve time grading, is
relatively fast in operation. The speed of response is
substantially independent of fault severity.

Unit protection usually involves comparison of

quantities at the boundaries of the protected zone as
defined by the locations of the current transformers.

This comparison may be achieved by direct hard-

wired connections or may be achieved via a
communications link.
OL35
b) Non-unit Protection Scheme: 
The non-unit schemes, intended to protect specific
areas, have no fixed boundaries.
Protects their own designated areas, the 
protective zones can overlap into other areas.
While this can be very beneficial for backup
purposes, there can be a tendency for too great an
area to be isolated if a fault is detected by different
non unit schemes.
The most simple of these schemes measures current
and incorporates an inverse time characteristic into
the protection operation to allow protection nearer to
the fault to operate first.
The non unit type protection system includes
following schemes:
a) Time graded over-current protection
b) Current graded over-current protection
c) Distance or Impedance Protection OL37
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYS
Protective relays can be classified in various ways depending
on the technology used for their construction, their speed of
operation, their generation of development, function, etc., and will
be discussed in more details in the following.
1. Classification of Protective Relays Based on Technology
Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following three
categories, depending on the technology they use for their
construction and operation.
(i) Electromechanical relays
(ii) Static relays
(iii) Numerical relays
(i) Electromechanical Relays
Electromechanical relays are further classified into two
categories, i.e., (i) electromagnetic relays, and (ii) thermal relays.
Electromagnetic relays work on the principle of either
electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Thermal
relays utilize the electro-thermal effect of the actuating current for
their operation.

38
(ii) Static Relays
Static relays contain electronic circuitry which may include
transistors, ICs, diodes and other electronic components. There is a
comparator circuit in the relay, which compares two or more
currents or voltages and gives an output which is applied to either a
slave relay or a thyristor circuit. The slave relay is an
electromagnetic relay which finally closes the contact. A static relay
containing a slave relay is a semi-static relay. A relay using a
thyristor circuit is a wholly static relay. Static relays possess the
advantages of having low burden on the CT and VT, fast operation,
absence of mechanical inertia and contact trouble, long life and less
maintenance.
Static relays have proved to be superior to electromechanical
relays and they are being used for the protection of important lines,
power stations and sub-stations. Yet they have not completely
replaced electromechanical relays. Static relays are treated as an
addition to the family of relays. Electromechanical relays continue
to be in use because of their simplicity and low cost. Their
maintenance can be done by less qualified personnel, whereas the
maintenance and repair of static relays requires personnel trained
in solid state devices.
39
(iii) Numerical Relays
Numerical relays are the latest development in this area.
These relays acquire the sequential samples of the ac
quantities in numeric (digital) data form through the data
acquisition system, and process the data numerically
using an algorithm to calculate the fault discriminants
and make trip decisions. Numerical relays have been
developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI
and computer hardware technology. They are based on
numerical (digital) devices, e.g., microprocessors,
microcontrollers, Digital Signal Processors (DSPs), etc.
At present microprocessor/ microcontroller-based
numerical relays are widely used. These relays use
different relaying algorithms to process the acquired
information. Microprocessor/microcontroller- based relays
are called numerical relays specifically if they calculate the
algorithm numerically.
40
 The term ‘digital relay’ was originally used to designate
a previous-generation relay with analog measurement
circuits and digital coincidence time measurement (angle
measurement) using microprocessors. Now a days the term
‘numerical relay’ is widely used in place of ‘digital relay’.
Sometimes, both terms are used in parallel. Similarly, the
term ‘numerical protection’ is widely used in place of
‘digital protection’. Sometimes both these terms are also
used in parallel.
The main features of numerical relays are their
economy, compactness, flexibility reliability, self-
monitoring and self-checking capability, multiple
functions, low burden on instruments transformers and
improved performance over conventional relays of
electromechanical and static types.

41
2. Classification of Protective Relays Based on Speed of
Operation
(i) Instantaneous relays
(ii) Time-delay relays
(iii) High-speed relays
(iv) Ultra high-speed relays
(i) Instantaneous relays
In these relays, no intentional time delay is introduced to slow
down their response. These relays operate as soon as a secure
decision is made.
(ii) Time-delay Relays
In these relays, an intentional time delay is introduced between
the relay decision time and the initiation of the trip action.
(iii) High-speed Relays
These relays operate in less than a specified time. The specified
time in present practice is 60 milliseconds (3 cycles on a 50 Hz
system).
(iv) Ultra High-speed Relays
Though this term is not included in the relay standard but these
relays are commonly considered to operate within 5 milliseconds.
42
3. Classification of Protective Relays Based on their Function
(i) Over current relays
(ii) Under voltage relays
(iii) Impedance relays
(iv) Under frequency relays
(v) Directional relays
These are some important relays. Many other relays
specifying their duty they perform can be put under this
type of classification. The duty which a relay performs is
evident from its name. For example, an over current relay
operates when the current exceeds a certain limit, an
impedance relay measures the line impedance between the
relay location and the point of fault and operates if the point
of fault lies within the protected section. Directional relays
check whether the point of fault lies in the forward or
reverse direction.
The above relays may be electromechanical, static or
numerical.
43
4. Classification of Protective Relays as Comparators
Protective relays are basically comparators which must be
able to carry out addition, subtraction, multiplication or
division of some scalar or some phasor quantities and make
comparisons of the input quantities as desired.
Based upon this principle, the protective relays can be
classified as comparators into the following categories.
(i) Single-input comparator
(ii) Dual-input comparator
(iii) Multi-input comparator
(i) Single-input Comparator
These relays have only one input signal and are also known
as level detectors. Such relays continuously monitor one
electrical quantity and compare it with certain constant
quantity, i.e., a reference or a base quantity which may be
the pull of a spring or gravitational force. An example of this
type of relay is an over current relay.

44
(ii) Dual-input Comparator
These relays have two input signals. Such relays measure
one quantity and compare it with another quantity. The
typical examples of such type of relays are distance relays
and differential relays. The distance relay measures the
current entering the circuit and compares it in magnitude or
in phase angle with the local bus voltage. The differential
relay measures the current entering the circuit and
compares it with the current leaving the circuit at the other
end.
(iii) Multi-input Comparator
Multi-input comparators have more than two input signals
and are used for the realization of special characteristics
other than straight lines or circle. These comparators are
also of two types, i.e., (i) multi-input phase comparator, and
(ii) multi-input amplitude comparator.

45
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTECTIVE SCHEMES
A protective scheme is used to protect an equipment or
a section of the line. It includes one or more relays of
the same or different types. The following are the most
common protective schemes which are usually used for
the protection of a modern power system.
(i) Over current protection
(ii) Distance protection
(iii) Carrier-current protection
(iv) Differential protection
(i) Over current Protection
This scheme of protection is used for the protection of
distribution lines, large motors, equipment, etc. It
includes one or more over current relays. An over
current relay operates when the current exceeds its
pick-up value.
46
(ii) Distance Protection
Distance protection is used for the protection of
transmission or sub-transmission lines; usually 33 kV,
66 kV and l32 kV lines. It includes a number of
distance relays of the same or different types. A
distance relay measures the distance between the relay
location and the point of fault in terms of impedance,
reactance, etc. The relay operates if the point of fault
lies within the protected section of the line. There are
various kinds of distance relays. The important types
are impedance, reactance and mho type. An impedance
relay measure the line impedance between the fault
point and relay location; a reactance relay measures
reactance, and a mho relay measures a component of
admittance.

47
(iii) Carrier-Current Protection
This scheme of protection is used for the protection
of EHV and UHV lines, generally 132 kV and above. A
carrier signal in the range of 50-500 kc/s is generated
for the purpose. A transmitter and receiver are installed
at each end of a transmission line to be protected.
Information regarding the direction of the fault current
is transmitted from one end of the line section to the
other. Depending on the information, relays placed at
each end trip if the fault lies within their protected
section. Relays do not trip in case of external faults.
The relays are of distance type and their tripping
operation is controlled by the carrier signal.

48
(iv) Differential Protection
This scheme of protection is used for the protection
of generators, transformers, motors of very large size,
bus zones, etc. CTs are placed on both sides of each
winding of a machine. The outputs of their secondaries
are applied to the relay coils. The relay compares the
current entering a machine winding and leaving the
same. Under normal conditions or during any external
fault, the current entering the winding is equal to the
current leaving the winding. But in the case of an
internal fault on the winding, these are not equal. This
difference in the current actuates the relay. Thus, the
relay operates for internal faults and remains
inoperative under normal conditions or during external
faults. In case of bus zone protection, CTs are placed
on the both sides of the bus bar.
49
AUTOMATIC RECLOSING
About 90% of faults on overhead lines are of
transient nature. Transient faults are caused by
lightning or external bodies falling on the lines. Such
faults are always associated with arcs. If the line is
disconnected from the system for a short time, the arc
is extinguished and the fault disappears. Immediately
after this, the circuit breaker can be reclosed
automatically to restore the supply.
Most faults on EHV lines are caused by lightning.
Flashover across insulators takes place due to over
voltages caused by lightning and exists for a short
time. Hence, only on instantaneous reclosure is used in
the case of EHV lines. There is no need for more than
one reclosure for such a situation. For EHV lines, one
reclosure in 12 cycles is recommended. A fast reclosure
is desired from the stability point of view. 50
 On lines up 33 kV, most faults are caused by
external objects such as tree branches, etc. falling on
the overhead lines. This is due to the fact that the
support height is less than that of the trees. The
external objects may not be burnt clear at the first
reclosure and may require additional reclosures.
Usually three reclosures at 15-120 seconds’ intervals
are made to clear the fault. Statistical reports show
that over 80% faults are cleared after the first
reclosure, 10% require the second reclosure and 2%
need the third reclosure, while the remaining 8% are
permanent faults. If the fault is not cleared after 3
reclosures, it indicates that the fault is of permanent
nature. Automatic reclosure are not used on cables as
the breakdown of insulation in cables causes a
permanent fault.
51
 Current and Voltage Transformers
Current and voltage transformers (CTs and
VTs) are collectively known as transducers or
instrument transformers.
They are used to transform the power
system currents and voltages to lower
magnitudes and to provide isolation between
the high voltage power system and the relays
and other measuring instruments (meters)
connected to the secondary windings of the
transducers.

52
Current and Voltage Transformers-cond..

In order to achieve a degree of

interchangeability among different
manufacturers of relays and meters, the
ratings of the secondary windings of the
transducers are standardized.
The standard current ratings of the
secondary windings of the current transformers
(CTs) are 5 or 1 ampere. The secondary
windings of the voltage transformers (VTs) are
rated at 110 V line to line.

53
Current and Voltage Transformers-cond..

In order to achieve a degree of

interchangeability among different
manufacturers of relays and meters, the
ratings of the secondary windings of the
transducers are standardized.
The standard current ratings of the
secondary windings of the current transformers
(CTs) are 5 or 1 ampere. The secondary
windings of the voltage transformers (VTs) are
rated at 110 V line to line.

54
Current and Voltage Transformers-cond..

The current and voltage ratings of the

protective relays and meters are same as the
current and voltage ratings of the secondary
windings of the CTs an VTs respectively.
The transducers should be able to provide
current and voltage signals to the relays and
meters which are faithful reproductions of the
corresponding primary quantities.
Although in most of the cases the modern
transducers are expected to do so, but they
can’t be ideal and free from the errors of
transformation. 55
Current and Voltage Transformers-cond..

Hence the errors of transformation

introduced by the transducers must be taken
into account, so that the performance of the
relays can be assessed in the presence of such
errors.
As the operating time of modern protective
relays has reduced to the order of few
milliseconds, the transient behavior of current
transformers and voltage transformers require
more attention.

56
 CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CTS)
Current transformers are used to perform two tasks.
Firstly, they step down the heavy power system
currents to low values that are suitable for the
operation of the relays
Secondly, they isolate the relays and meters
circuits from the high voltages of the power
system.
A power transformer is a shunt-operated device
while a CT is a series operated device. Current
transformers are connected with their primaries in
series with the power system (protected circuit) and,
because the primary currents are so large, the primary
winding has very few turns.

57
 The VA rating of current transformers is
small as compared with that of a power
transformer.
Though the nominal (Continuous) current
ratings of the secondary windings of the CTs
are 5A or 1A but they must be designed to
tolerate higher values for short time of few
seconds under abnormal system conditions,
e.g., fault conditions. Since the fault currents
may be as high as 50 times full-load current,
current transformers are designed to withstand
these high currents for a few seconds.

58
 Protective relays require reasonably accurate
reproduction of the normal and abnormal conditions in
the power system for correct sensing and operation.
Hence, the current transformers should be able to
provide current signals to the relays and meters which
are faithful reproductions of the primary currents. The
measure of a current transformer performance is its
ability to accurately reproduce the primary current in
secondary amperes.
Ideally, the current transformer should faithfully
transform the current without any error. But, in
practice, there is always some error. The error is both
in magnitude and in phase angle. These errors are
known as ratio error and phase angle error. The
exciting current is the main source of these errors of a
CT.
59
Depending on application, CTs are broadly
classified into two categories:
(1) Measuring CTs, and
(2) Protective CTs.

CTs used in conjunction with measuring

instruments (meters) are popularly termed
as measuring (metering) CTs’ and those
used in conjunction with protective devices
are termed as protective CTs. CTs used in
association with protective devices i.e.
relays, trip coils, pilot wires etc. are called
protective CTs.
60
 Protective CTs are designed to have small errors
during fault conditions so that they can correctly
reproduce the fault currents for satisfactory operation
of the protective relays. The performance of protective
relays during normal conditions, when the relays are
not required to operate, may not be as accurate.
When a fault occurs on a power system, the current
tends to increase and voltage tends to collapse. The
fault current is abnormal and may be 20 to 50 times
the full-load current. It may have dc offset in addition
to ac component. The fault current for a CT secondary
of 5A rating could be 100 to 250 A. Therefore, the CT
secondary having a continuous current rating of 5A
should have short-time current rating of 100 to 250 A,
so that the same is not damaged.

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 Core Material of CTs
Figure shows the magnetization
Characteristics of (a) cold-rolled grain-oriented
silicon steel (3%), (b) hot-rolled silicon steel
(4%) and (c) nickel-iron (77% Ni, 14% Fe).

62
 It is seen that the nickel-iron core has the qualities
of highest permeability, low exciting current, low errors
and saturation at a relatively low flux density.
Measuring CTs are required to give a high accuracy for
all load currents up to 125% of the rated current.
Nickel-iron gives a good accuracy up to 5 times the
rated current and hence, it is quite a suitable core
material for CTs used for meters and instruments. The
excessive currents being fed to instruments and meters
are prevented during faults on power system due to
almost absolute saturation at relatively low flux
density.

63
 Cold-rolled grain-oriented silicon steel (3%),
which has a high permeability, high saturation
level, reasonably small exciting current and low
errors is used for the core of the CTs used for
protective relays. Such core material has
reasonably good accuracy up to 10-15 times
the rated current, but when we consider
currents that are five times under the rated
current, the core material made from nickel-
iron alloy fares batter.
Hot-rolled silicon steel has the lowest permeability. So
it is not suitable for CTs. In order to achieve the desired
characteristics, composite cores made of laminations of
two or more materials are also used in CTs.
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CT Burden
The CT burden is defined as the load connected
across its secondary, which is usually expressed in
volt amperes (VA). It can also be expressed in
terms of impedance at the rated secondary current
at a given power factor, usually 0.7 lagging. From
the given impedance at rated secondary current,
the burden in VA can be calculated. Suppose the
burden is 0.5 W at 5 A secondary current. Its volt
amperes will be equal to I * I * R =5 x 5 × 0.5 =
1.25 VA.
The total burden on the CT is that of the relays,
meters, connecting leads and the burden due to
the resistance of the secondary winding of the CT.
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VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS (VT’S)
Voltage transformers (VTs) were previously
known as potential transformers (PTs). They
are used to reduce the power system voltages
to standard lower values and to physically
isolate the relays and other instruments
(meters) from the high voltages of the power
system. The voltage ratings of the secondary
windings of the VTs have been standardized, so
that a degree of interchangeability among
relays and meters of different manufacturers
can be achieved.

71
 The standard voltage rating of the secondary
windings of the VTs used is practice is 110 V
line to line or 63.5 V line to neutral.
Therefore, the voltage ratings of the voltage
(pressure) coils of protective relays and
measuring instrument (meters) are also 110 V
line to line or 63.5 V line to neutral.
The voltage transformers should be able to
provide voltage signals to the relays and meters
which are faithful reproductions of the primary
voltages.

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Classification of Protective Relays Based on Technology
(i) Electromechanical relays
(ii) Static relays
(iii) Numerical relays
Electromechanical relays
Most of the relays in service on electric power system
today are of electro-mechanical type. They work on the
following two main operating principles :
(i)Electromagnetic attraction- Both AC & DC
1.Attracted armature type relay
2.Solenoid type relay
3.Balanced beam type relay
(ii) Electromagnetic induction-Only AC
4.Shaded-pole structure
5.Watt-hour meter structure
6.Induction cup structure
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Electromagnetic Attraction Relays
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of
an armature being attracted to the poles of an
electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a
solenoid. Such relays may be actuated by dc or ac
quantities.
1. Attracted armature type relay.

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 Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of an
attracted armature type relay. It consists of a
laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a
pivoted laminated armature.
The armature is balanced by a counterweight and
carries a pair of spring contact fingers at its free end.
Under normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil C is such that counterweight
holds the armature in the position shown.
However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current
through the relay coil increases sufficiently and the
relay armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on
the relay armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts
attached to the relay frame. This completes the trip
circuit which results in the opening of the circuit
breaker and, therefore, in the disconnection of the
faulty circuit. 75
Note: The minimum current at which the relay
armature is attracted to close the trip circuit is called
pickup current.
2. Solenoid type relay
Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a solenoid
type relay. It consists of a solenoid and movable iron
plunger arranged as shown.

76
 Under normal operating conditions, the current
through the relay coil C is such that it holds the
plunger by gravity or spring in the position shown.
However, on the occurrence of a fault, the current
through the relay coil becomes more than the pickup
value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the
solenoid. The upward movement of the plunger closes
the trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and
disconnecting the faulty circuit.
3. Balanced beam type relay

77
Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a
balanced beam type relay. It consists of an iron
armature fastened to a balance beam. Under
normal operating conditions, the current through
the relay coil is such that the beam is held in the
horizontal position by the spring. However, when a
fault occurs, the current through the relay coil
becomes greater than the pickup value and the
beam is attracted to close the trip circuit. This
causes the opening of the circuit breaker to isolate
the faulty circuit.

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Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle
of induction motor and are widely used for protective
relaying purposes involving ac quantities. They are not
used with dc quantities owing to the principle of
operation. An induction relay essentially consists of a
pivoted aluminium disc placed in two alternating
magnetic fields of the same frequency but displaced in
time and space. The torque is produced in the disc by the
interaction of one of the magnetic fields with the currents
induced in the disc by the other.
To understand the production of torque in an
induction relay, refer to the elementary arrangement
shown in Fig. (i). The two ac fluxes φ 2 and φ1 differing in
phase by an angle α induce e.m.f.s’ in the disc and cause
the circulation of eddy currents i 2 and i1 respectively.
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Referring to Fig (ii) where the two ac fluxes and
induced currents are shown separately for clarity,
let
φ1 = φ1max sin ωt
φ2 = φ2max sin (ω t + α)
Net force F ∝ φ1 φ2 sin α
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1. Shaded-pole structure

The general arrangement of shaded-pole structure is

shown in Fig. It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc
free to rotate in the air-gap of an electromagnet. One
half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a
copper band known as shading ring.
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The alternating flux φs in the shaded portion of the
poles will, owing to the reaction of the current
induced in the ring, lag behind the flux φu in the
unshaded portion by an angle α. These two ac
fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary
torque to rotate the disc. As proved earlier, the
driving torque T is
T ∝ φs φu sin α
Assuming the fluxes φs and φu to be proportional to
the current I in the relay coil,
T ∝ I2 sin α
This shows that driving torque is proportional to
the square of current in the relay coil.

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 2.Watthour-meter structure

This structure gets its name from the fact that it is

used in watthour meters. The general arrangement of
this type of relay is shown in Fig.. It consists of a
pivoted aluminium disc arranged to rotate freely
between the poles of two electromagnets. 84
85
The upper electromagnet carries two windings ; the primary
and the secondary. The primary winding carries the relay
current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the
winding of the lower magnet. The primary current induces
emf in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it. The
flux φ2 induced in the lower magnet by the current in the
secondary winding of the upper magnet will lag behind φ1 by
an angle α. The two fluxes φ1and φ2 differing in phase by α
will produce a driving torque on the disc proportional to
φ1φ2 sin α.
An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation
can be controlled by opening or closing the secondary
winding circuit. If this circuit is opened, no flux can be set by
the lower magnet however great the value of current in the
primary winding may be and consequently no torque will be
produced. Therefore, the relay can be made inoperative by
opening its secondary winding circuit.

86
 3. Induction cup structure

Fig. shows the general arrangement of an induction

cup structure. It most closely resembles an
induction motor, except that the rotor iron is
stationary, only the rotor conductor portion being
free to rotate. 87
 The moving element is a hollow cylindrical rotor
which turns on its axis. The rotating field is
produced by two pairs of coils wound on four poles
as shown. The rotating field induces currents in
the cup to provide the necessary driving torque. If
φ1 and φ2 represent the fluxes produced by the
respective pairs of poles, then torque produced is
proportional to φ1φ2 sin α where α is the phase
difference between the two fluxes.
A control spring and the back stop for closing
of the contacts carried on an arm are attached to
the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous
rotation. Induction cup structures are more
efficient torque producers than either the shaded-
pole or the watt-hour meter structures. Therefore,
this type of relay has very high speed and may
have an operating time less then 0·1 second. 88