Atmospheric

Motion
Instructor: Dr. Mohd Khalid Ansari
Mail ID: ansarikbs@gmail.com
Meteorology, Weather, & Climate
• Meteorology is the study of phenomena of the
atmosphere – includes the dynamics, physics, and
chemistry of the atmosphere. (from the Greek meteōros
– ‘lofty’)
• More commonly thought of as restricted to the dynamics
and thermodynamics of the atmosphere as it affects
human life.
 The Pressure­Gradient Force
Horizontal pressure gradients are the main driving
force for winds.
Pressure gradient force = - 1 dP 1000 mb
 dx

1004 mb
where P is pressure,  is air density, and x is distance.
The force is thus inversely proportional to the spacing
of isobars (closer spacing  stronger force), and is
directed perpendicular to them, from high pressure pressure
to low. force

The pressure force acts to accelerate the air towards

the low pressure.

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The Coriolis Force

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The coriolis force is an apparent force, introduced to
account for the apparent deflection of a moving Axis of spin
object observed from within a rotating frame of
reference – such as the Earth.

The coriolis force acts at right angles to both the

direction of motion and the spin axis of the rotating
reference frame. V

Coriolis Force

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 Coriolis Force on a Flat Disk
Fc V

1 2 3

4 5 6

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Earth is a sphere – more complex than
disk: horizontal and vertical components
to the coriolis force.
In the atmosphere, we are concerned
only with the horizontal component of
the coriolis force. It has a magnitude (per
unit mass) of:

2 V sin
 = angular velocity of the earth
V = wind speed
 = latitude

This is a maximum at the poles and zero

at the equator, and results in a deflection
to the right in the northern hemisphere,
and to the left in the southern
hemisphere.

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Geostrophic Balance
A pressure gradient imposed on a
stationary air mass will start to
accelerate it towards the region of
low pressure
The pressure force continues
to accelerate the flow, and
the coriolis force continues to
turn it FP

1000 mb
FP FP FP
Vg
1004 mb V
V
V
Fc
Fc Fc
Fc Eventually the flow becomes
The coriolis force acts to parallel to the isobars, and
turn the flow to the right (in the pressure and coriolis
the northern hemisphere) forces balance. This is
termed geostrophic balance,
and Vg the geostrophic wind
speed.

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Since the coriolis force balances the
pressure force we have: N.B. air density  changes very little at a fixed
altitude, and is usually assumed constant, but
Pressure gradient force = coriolis force decreases significantly with increasing altitude
1 dP = 2 Vg sin  pressure gradient force for a
 dx given pressure gradient increases with
altitude
Geostrophic wind speed is
directly proportional to the  geostrophic wind speed increases
with altitude.
pressure gradient, and inversely
dependent on latitude.
 For a fixed pressure gradient,
the geostrophic wind speed
decreases towards the poles.

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 Departures from geostrophic
Geostrophic flow is a close approximation to balance arise due to:
observed winds throughout most of the free – constant changes in the
atmosphere, except near the equator where the pressure field
coriolis force approaches zero. – curvature in the isobars
– vertical wind shear

Significant departure from

geostrophic flow occurs near the
surface due to the effects of
friction.

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Centripetal Acceleration
Motion around a curved path requires an HIGH
acceleration towards the centre of Fc
curvature: the centripetal acceleration.
V Centripetal
acceleration

LOW
FP
FP

For a low, the coriolis force is less

Centripetal V than the pressure force; for a high it is
acceleration
greater than pressure force. This
Fc results in:
LOW: V < geostrophic
The required centripetal acceleration (subgeostrophic)
is provided by an imbalance between
the pressure and coriolis forces. HIGH: V > geostrophic
(supergeostrophic)
V is here called the gradient wind

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Effect of Friction
Geostrophic flow Friction at the surface slows the
away from surface wind. Turbulent mixing extends
effects of friction up to ~100 m to
~1.5 km above surface.
Lower wind speed results in a
smaller coriolis force, hence reduced
turning to right.
Wind vector describes a spiral: the
Ekman Spiral. Surface wind lies to
left of geostrophic wind
• 10-20 over ocean
• 25-35 over land
Ekman Spiral
The wind speed a few metres above
the surface is ~70% of geostrophic
wind over the ocean, even less over
land (depending on surface
conditions)
Vg
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 Surface winds cross
isobars at 10-35

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 For a non-rotating Earth,
convection could form simple
symmetric cells in each
hemisphere.

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Coriolis force turns the air Polar Cell
flow. Stable mean circulation Ferrel Cell
has 6 counter-rotating cells –
3 in each hemisphere.
Within each cell, coriolis
forces turn winds to east or
west. Exact boundaries
between cells varies with
season.

N.B. This is a simplified model,

circulations are not continuous in
space or time.

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Summary
• Balance of pressure and coriolis forces results
in geostrophic flow parallel to isobars
• Curvature of isobars around centres of high
and low pressure requires centripetal
acceleration to turn flow, resulting gradient
wind is:
• supergeostrophic around HIGH
• subgeostrophic around LOW
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• Friction reduces wind speed near surface
• Lower wind speed  reduced coriolis
turning, wind vector describes an Ekman
Spiral between surface and level of
geostrophic flow
• Surface wind lies 10-35 to left of geostrophic
wind, crossing isobars from high to low
pressure.
20
• Difference in solar heating between tropics
and poles requires a compensating flow of
heat
• Coriolis turning interacts with large scale
convective circulation to form 3 cells in each
hemisphere
• 6 cell model is an over-simplification of
reality, but accounts for major features of
mean surface winds

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