Chapter – 10 (Oxford)

Chapter – 14 (Jeppesen)

Wind: horizontal movement of air over the surface of the
Earth due to forces acting upon it.

It is expressed as a Wind Velocity (W/V);
(W/V); both
◦ Direction
◦ Speed.

Direction:

is always given as the
direction from which the
wind is blowing.

It is normally given in
degrees true,
true but wind
direction given to a pilot
by ATC will be given in
degrees magnetic.

Wind speed is usually given in
knots.
knots.

Representation:
The wind direction is from the
feathers to the point which
indicates the location of the
wind.
i.e. The illustrated wind is 240° (true)
at 125 kt. It should be noted that, by
convention, the feathers always point
towards the low pressure.

Veering is a change of wind

direction in a clockwise direction.

Backing is a change of wind

direction in an anticlockwise
direction.

A Gusts is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in
direction lasting less than one minute and it is a local effect. A gust will only
be reported or forecast if 10 kt or more above the mean wind speed.

A lull is a sudden decrease in wind speed.

A squall is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in

direction. Lasting for one minute or more and can cover a wide area. It is
often associated with cumulonimbus cloud and cold fronts.

A gale exists when the sustained wind speed exceeds 33 kt, or gusts
exceed 42 kt.

A hurricane is a wind when sustained speed exceeds 63 kt.


Surface wind is measured by a
wind vane which aligns itself with
the wind direction, and an
anemometer which measures the
speed.

ICAO requires;

the wind vane and anemometer should
be positioned 10 m (33 ft) above
aerodrome level and located clear of
buildings and obstructions which could
affect the airflow and hence accuracy.

An anemograph records wind speed and

direction.

Upper winds are measured by GPS tracking

of a radiosonde and by aircraft reports.

Wind is generated by the pressure differences
between high and low pressure systems which
give rise to what we call the pressure gradient
force (PGF) the change of pressure over distance.

The PGF acts directly from high
pressure to low pressure.

The spacing of the isobars

determines the magnitude of the
force, the closer together the
isobars the greater the pressure
difference and hence the PGF and
thus the wind speed.

Buys Ballot’s Law tells us that “if we stand with our back to the wind in the
Northern Hemisphere low pressure is on the left” left” (right in the Southern
Hemisphere).

Hence the surface wind does not

flow directly from high pressure to
low pressure but nearly parallel to
the isobars...!

Above the friction level however, the wind is generally parallel to the isobars.
isobars.

To reduce the complexity of real wind, a number of models are developed.

There are two wind models that we need to consider:

The Geostrophic Wind

The Gradient Wind

Assumptions for The Geostrophic Wind Model
are as follows:
1) The Geostrophic Wind is said to have only two
forces.

2) These must be working opposite from each other

and in balance.

◦ These two forces are:

Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)

Coriolis Force (CF)

Pressure Gradient Force, (PGF), is the
force that acts from a high pressure
to a low pressure.

The Pressure Gradient Force, (PGF), controls the wind speed.

A large PGF ⇒ Strong winds
A small PGF ⇒ Light winds
Wind speed is directly proportional to the pressure gradient force...!

The strength of this PGF is represented by the spacing between isobars:

◦ Closely spaced isobars ⇒ a large PGF
◦ (This is common in low pressure systems).

◦ Widely spaced isobars ⇒ a small PGF

◦ (This is common in high pressure systems).

Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS) gives us the speed of the wind, depending
on the relationship between;

◦ the isobar spacing,

◦ the pressure gradient force.
◦ (Note that, the scale is also dependent on the Latitude)

How to use the GWS?

Take the distance between two isobars and reading from left to right,
measure the geostrophic wind speed using the geostrophic wind scale
shown at the bottom of the diagram.

You will notice the wider the spacing

wind....!
of the isobars, the lighter the wind

Coriolis Force (CF), is the force caused by the rotation
of the earth.

It acts 90° to the wind direction causing air to turn to

the right or veer in the Northern Hemisphere and to
the left or back in the Southern hemisphere.
hemisphere

CF is maximum at the poles and minimum at the

Equator.

The Coriolis force is not a true

force but is an explanation of the
effect the rotation of the earth
has on a free moving body not in
contact with the earth.

It is the combination of 4 factors:

If the sind is blowing parallel to straight
isobars, then it is called a Geostrophic
Wind. (Therefore the geostrophic wind can
only blow in a straight line).

Direction of the Geostrophic Wind can

be found by using;
Buys Ballot’s Law

and the speed can be found by using;
Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS)

The Geostrophic wind only blows above the friction layer.

Within the friction layer the wind speed is reduced because of surface friction.

Therefore the Coriolis force will reduce, causing the two forces to be out of
balance.

The thickness of the friction layer varies depending upon the nature of the
surface and the time of the day. Therefore, the height of the geostrophic
wind will vary.

(Generally though it is considered to be between 2000 - 3000 ft.)

Within the geostrophic wind the PGF is equal to the CF.
So, for the same PGF (or isobar spacing) as latitude increases the
CF will remain constant so for the same PGF as latitude
increases, sine of latitude also increases and hence the wind
speed will decrease.

i.e. The isobar spacing at 40°N gives a wind

speed of 25 kt.
kt
The same isobar spacing at 70°N gives a speed
of only 15 kt.
kt.

Note, for this type of question the key is

“same PGF“ or “same isobar spacing”.

Same spacing between the
isobars at;

Note: Within 15 degrees the CF is very small, high latitude ⇒ slower
so that the geostrophic formula is no longer wind speed
valid. when compared to lower
latitude.

How Geostrophic Wind is Developed?

(Diagram below is shown for the Northern Hemisphere).

Air is being accelerated towards the low pressure but in doing so, the
strength of the CF is increasing.

The wind is being deflected to the right until the two forces are acting
opposite from each other and the wind now blows parallel to the isobar.

(Note: With your back to the wind, the low pressure is on your left).

For the wind to be geostrophic, it has to occur:
1. Above the friction layer.
2. At a latitude greater than 15 degrees.
3. When the pressure situation is not changing rapidly.
4. With the isobars straight and parallel.

Above the friction layer, with an increase in height, the wind

speed should increase due to the reduction in density assuming
all other factors are unchanged.

What if the Isobars are curved?

If the wind were to follow a curved path, it cannot be considered as
a geostrophic wind.
There will be additional forces involved, namely the centrifugal or
centripetal forces. This additional force creates Gradient Wind
which will be explained by the Gradient Wind Model.
Model

The gradient wind occurs when the isobars are curved.

This brings into play a force which makes the wind follow a curved path
parallel to the isobars:

The Centrifugal Force

Hence the gradient wind is the wind which blows parallel to curved
isobars due to 3 Forces:
1. PGF
2. CF
3. Centrifugal Force

3. Centrifugal Force
◦ Centrifugal force is the
force acting perpendicular
to the direction of rotation
and away from the centre
of rotation.

Note that the effect of Centrifugal Force in Depressions and

Highs are different...!

If air is moving steadily around a depression, then the
centrifugal force opposes the PGF and therefore
reduces the wind speed.

The gradient wind speed around a depression is less

than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar
interval. Hence if the Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS) is
used, it will overread.
overread.

In an anticyclone the centrifugal force is acting in the same direction as the PGF so
increases the magnitude of the PGF.

Hence the wind speed will be greater than the equivalent geostrophic wind speed.

The gradient wind speed around an anticyclone is greater than the geostrophic
wind for the same isobar interval.

Hence if the Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS) is used, it will underread.
underread.

i.e. in a system where the

radius of curvature of the
isobars is 500 NM and the
geostrophic wind speed is 40
kt, the speed in a cyclonic
system will be 34 kt and in an
anticyclonic system 58 kt.

Note that when discussing the gradient wind;

1. We are comparing the wind in a low pressure system to the equivalent
geostrophic wind and,
2. as a separate argument, comparing the wind in a high pressure system
with the equivalent geostrophic wind.

We are not comparing the wind speed in a low pressure system with the wind
speed in a high pressure system.

The wind which blows in low latitudes where the
CF is very small is called the antitriptic wind.

Next:Models are valid above Friction Layer. But

what happens within the Friction Layer..?

Below the Friction Layer wind speed will reduce near the ground due to friction.

Wind Speed Reduces ⇒ Coriolis Force is also reduced

This will cause the two forces in the geostrophic wind to be out of balance since
now CF is less than PGF.
PGF

The wind is now called a surface wind.

In the surface wind, PGF is

more dominant than CF.

This causes the wind to blow

across the isobars towards
the low.

Rough Rules
◦ In the Northern Hemisphere the surface
wind over land is backed by 30 degrees
from the geostrophic, or gradient wind
direction and its speed is reduced by 50%.
◦ In the Southern Hemisphere,
Hemisphere because of the
opposite effect of the CF, the surface wind is
veered from the 2000 ft wind, but the
numerical values are the same.

◦ Over the sea, friction is less and the

surface winds are closer to
geostrophic values.
◦ Surface wind over the sea, in the
Northern Hemisphere,
Hemisphere is backed by 10
degrees from the geostrophic or
gradient wind direction and speed
reduced to 70%
70%
◦ (surface winds will veer in the
Southern Hemisphere).
Hemisphere

It veers and increases by day
reaching maximum strength
about 1500 hrs. It backs and
decreases thereafter with
minimum strength around 30
minutes after sunrise.

This diurnal variation is due to

thermal turbulence which mixes
the air at the surface with air
moving freely above. It is
therefore most marked on clear
sunny days, and particularly in
unstable air masses, with sunny
days and clear nights.

Figure shows the effect of diurnal
temperature variation on both the 1500 ft
W/V and the surface W/V.

◦ By Day. Thermal currents are greater on sunny

days and at 1500 hours. They will cause
interaction between the surface and the top of
the friction layer. The 2000 ft W/V will with
descent be increasingly affected by the surface
friction and will therefore steadily reduce in
speed and turn towards the low pressure. (Back
in Northern Hemisphere or veer in Southern
Hemisphere).

◦ By Night. Thermal currents cease. The top of the

friction layer effectively drops below 1500 ft
where the W/V will assume 2000 ft direction and
speed thus becoming faster and veering (NH).
The surface W/V no longer has interaction with
the stronger wind above and will therefore
decrease and back (NH). Thus a marked
windshear can occur between 1500 ft and the
surface, affecting handling for example on an
approach.

DV of surface wind aids the formation of radiation fog at
night and early morning, and its dispersal by day.

Diurnal effect over the sea is small because DV of sea

temperature is small.
 Land Breeze
Sea Breeze
Valley Wind
Katabatic Wind
Anabatic Wind
Föhn Wind

Sea breezes.

Required Conditions:
On a sunny day,
day particularly in an anticyclone with a
light PGF,
PGF the land will heat quickly.
1. The air in contact will be warmed and will rise ⇒
P at1000 ft over land will be > P at 1000 ft over
the sea.
1. Air at 1000ft will drift from the land to the sea.
2. The drift of air will lower the surface P over the
land and rise the surface P over the sea.
3. As a result there will be a flow of air from sea to
land - a sea breeze.

Sea breezes extend 8 to 14 NM either side of the

coast and the speed is about 10 kt. (In the tropics
speed is 15 kt or more)

The direction of the sea breeze is more or less at

right angles to the coast, but after some time it will
veer under the influence of the Coriolis Force.

Land breezes.

After mid-afternoon the land
is starting to cool and this
process will accelerate after
sunset.

Overnight the situation will
reverse and pressure will now
be higher on land than over
the sea as the temperature
reduces.

This will give rise to a wind
now blowing from land to sea.sea

The land breeze can be
expected within about 5 NM of
the coastline and with a
maximum speed of about 5 kt.

Fog at sea can be blown inland by day to

The direction of take-off and landing can be affect coastal airfields.
reversed with the change from sea to land
breeze.

The lifting of air over land with the sea

breeze can cause small clouds to form.
These are a good navigational feature of
coastline.

If there is a relatively small change in

A wind blowing against a the direction, it is possible for the
mountain is impeded. If the valley wind to reverse. The
barrier is broken by a gap or combination of high wind speed and
valley, the wind will blow along rough terrain is likely to give rise to
the valley at an increased speed considerable turbulence at low level
& landings may be difficult.
due to the restriction.

Examples of valley winds are the Mistral (Rhone Valley),
Valley), Genovese (Po Valley),
Kosava (Danube) and Vardarac (Thessalonika).
(Thessalonika). Valley winds also occur in fjords.

Venturi Effect
The increase in speed as the wind flows through a valley will cause the Venturi Effect:
⇒ reduction in pressure which will result in the true altitude being less than the
indicated altitude.
The same effect may be experienced above a mountain range as the wind blows over
the range, particularly in stable conditions.

A katabatic wind is caused by a flow of cold air down a hill
or mountain side at night.

If the side of the mountain is cooled by radiation, the air in
contact is also cooled, and it will therefore flow down the
mountain side.

The katabatic effect is most marked if the mountain side is
snow covered, if the sky is clear to assist radiation and if
the PG is slack. Speeds average 10 kt and the flow of cold
air into the valley helps frost and fog to form.

Th air at higher levels will be warmer and an inversion
results.

The katabatic effect can also occur by day when relatively
warm air comes into contact with snow covered slopes.

Example: Bora in the Northern Adriatic

Anabatic Winds

On a warm sunny day, the slope of a hill will become
heated by insolation, particularly if it is a south
facing slope.

The air in contact with the ground will be heated by
conduction and will rise up the hill. Free cold air will
replace the lifted air and so a light wind will blow up
the hillside.

An anabatic wind is a light wind of around 5 kt
which blows up a hill or mountain by day

The Föhn Wind is a warm dry wind which blows on the downwind side of a mountain
range.

It is a local wind in the Alps.

A similar wind on the east of the Rocky Mountains in Canada is called the Chinook.

There is also the Zonda to the east of the Andes in South America.

Conditions Required:
◦ When moist air is forced to rise up a mountain in stable conditions it will cool adiabatically at
the DALR until saturated when it will continue cooling at the SALR.
◦ Precipitation will occur removing water from the air so the dew point will decrease.
◦ When the air descends on the leeward (downwind) side the cloud base will be higher so the air
will warm at the DALR over a greater height than it cooled at the SALR on the windward side.
◦ Consequently the temperature at the base of the mountain will be greater on the downwind side
than it was on the upwind side.

So, on the windward side we can expect low

cloud and precipitation whilst on the leeward
side we will see clear turbulent conditions.

The result is a warm, dry wind blowing on the
downside of the mountain.
mountain Temperature
increases in excess of 10°C may occur.

The presence of a Föhn wind could also
indicate the presence of mountain waves.

Föhn winds can occur over the east and west
coasts of Scotland when moist winds come
over the highlands off the Atlantic Ocean or
North Sea.