TOEFL PART III:

STRUCTURE &
WRITTEN EXPRESSION
SEF Social Action – TOEFL CLASS D
1. Use the Continuous Aspect When
Referring to a Progressive or
Temporary Action

A Lesson in Tenses
What is Aspect?

 “Aspect” means that when we use verbs, we can focus on either the
action itself (the action is seen as continuous, progressive, temporary,
happening at the moment of speaking) or on the result of the action
(the action is simple, general, habitual).
Continuous Aspect vs Simple Aspect

 Each verbal tense has two aspects: continuous and simple. This
means that whenever the action happens (past, present or future), we
can focus on either the action itself (continuous aspect) or the result
of the action (simple aspect).
How to Form the Continuous Aspect

 The continuous aspect is formed with the auxiliary verb “to be” used
in the intended tense, plus the “-ing” form of the verb.
 Example:
He is climbing that mountain right now. (present continuous)
She has been writing for the past 40 minutes. (present perfect
continuous)
Differentiating Continuous & Simple Aspects

 CONTINUOUS ASPECT - Action is happening progressively; Action

may be temporary
 SIMPLE ASPECT - Action is general, habitual
Present Simple vs Present Continuous

Present Simple Present Continuous

Anna is working as a secretary

Jane works as a secretary.
while Diane is on
(permanent action, this is
maternity leave.
her job)
(temporary job)
Present Perfect vs Present Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect (Simple) Present Perfect Continuous

She has been working on this

She has finished her breakfast.
project for five days.
(the focus is on the result)
(progressive action)
Future Simple vs Future Continuous

Future Simple Future Continuous

I will help you with those bags! John will be reading tonight.
(spontaneous, simple action) (continuous action)
Future Perfect vs Future Perfect Continuous

Future Perfect (Simple) Future Perfect Continuous

When he calls, she will have

By tomorrow morning, she will
been reading the article for two
have finished writing the essay.
hours.
(simple action, the focus is on
(continuous action, focus on
the result)
the process)
Past Simple vs Past Continuous

Past Simple Past Continuous

He was waiting for me when I

He waited for two hours, after
arrived.
which he left.
(continuous action, focus on
(the focus is on the result)
the process)
Past Perfect vs Past Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect (Simple) Past Perfect Continuous

He had been talking on the

He had finished his dinner when phone for two hours when she
she arrived. arrived.
(the focus is on the result) (continuous action, focus on
the process)
Exercise

 My cat ___ (drink) all the milk by the time we got home.
 She ___ (think) about buying a new car because the one she has is
old.
 I ___ (write) an email, so I can’t help you do the dishes.
 He ___ (write) a lot of emails as part of his job.
 It’s almost 10 p.m. and we still ___ (decided) what to eat yet.
Exercise Answers

 My cat had drunk (drink) all the milk by the time we got home.
 She is thinking (think) about buying a new car because the one she
has is old.
 I am writing (write) an email, so I can’t help you do the dishes.
 He writes (write) a lot of emails as part of his job.
 It’s almost 10 p.m. and we still haven’t decided (decided) what to eat
yet.
2. Use “the” for Defined Things, People
or Places

A Lesson in Determiners
The General Usage of “The”

 The definite article is used for things, people or places that are
“defined” for the speakers. This means that the speakers know
precisely what thing, person or place they are talking about.
Situations in Which We Use “The”

 With people/things mentioned before, so it’s clear who/what you are referring to from the context.
 With things that are unique, even if not mentioned before.
 With nouns followed by a defining relative clause (a clause that describes a person or thing we are
talking about).
 With superlatives and ordinal numbers.
 With names of countries that have plurals in them or that include the words “republic” or
“kingdom.”
 With names of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of islands, canals and oceans.
Situation #1

 With people/things mentioned before, so it’s clear who/what you are

referring to from the context.
Example: We are staying in a nice hotel. The hotel is in the center of
the city.
Situation #2

With things that are unique, even if not mentioned before.

Examples:
We went to the lake today.
You can find any information you need on the Internet.
Situation #3

 With nouns followed by a defining relative clause (a clause that

describes a person or thing we are talking about).
Example: The book you gave me is nice.
Situation #4

 With superlatives and ordinal numbers.

 Example: I think I just tasted the best ice cream ever.
 Example: This is the second question he’s asked today.
Situation #5

 With names of countries that have plurals in them or that include the
words “republic” or “kingdom.”
Examples:
the United States of America
the Czech Republic
the Netherlands
The United Kingdom
The Kingdom of Arandelle
Situation #6

 With names of geographical areas, rivers, mountain ranges, groups of

islands, canals and oceans.
Examples:
the Arctic
the Alps
the Nile
Exercise

 ___ price of gas has doubled in the past three days.

 We can’t predict which way ___ global economy is going.
 I don’t like ___ chocolate, but I love ___ candy that you brought.
 Please pass me ___ sugar. It’s in ___ white bowl.
 ___ people don’t like it when you talk back to them.
Exercise Answers

 The price of gas has doubled in the past three days.

 We can’t predict which way the global economy is going.
 I don’t like x chocolate, but I love the candy that you brought.
 Please pass me the sugar. It’s in the white bowl.
 x people don’t like it when you talk back to them.
 3. Use Adjectives Only When
Describing People, Places or Things

Don’t confuse adjectives with adverb

Adjectives

 Adjectives describe nouns (people, places or things).

 Example: I like romantic movies.
 Adjectives usually go before nouns.
 Adjectives can also be part of the following structure:
 [Noun] + to be + [adjective]
 This same structure is used with verbs that can be replaced by “be” (feel, look,
taste, smell, sound, appear, seem), as seen in the following example:
 The soup tastes/smells/looks/seems good.
The soup is good.
Adverbs

 Adverbs are usually formed from adjectives by adding -ly at the

end of the adjective. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives and
other adverbs.
Example of an adverb describing a verb

 The bird sang beautifully.

 “Beautifully” describes the verb “sang.” You can ask, “How did the
bird sing?” and you get the answer, “beautifully.”
Example of an adverb describing an adjective

 She is a really nice girl.

 “Really” refers to the adjective “nice.” To be sure, you can ask
“How nice?” and get the answer “really nice.”
Example of an adverb describing another adverb

 She talked very loudly.
 “Very” describes the adverb “loudly.” If you ask “How loudly?,” you
get the answer “very loudly.”
Exercise

 She ___ (careful) took the baby out of the car.

 The puzzle was ___ (extreme) difficult.
 She remained ___ (calm) despite the turbulences.
 The ___ (recent) launched product was much better than the ___ (old)
version.
 She made an ___ (unfortunate) mistake.
Exercise Answers

 She carefully (careful) took the baby out of the car.

 The puzzle was extremely (extreme) difficult.
 She remained calm (calm) despite the turbulences.
 The recently (recent) launched product was much better than the old
(old) version.
 She made an unfortunate (unfortunate) mistake.
4. “Who,” “Whom” and “Which” Are
Not Interchangeable

A Lesson in Relative Pronoun

Who, Which, That

 “Who” refers to people, “which” refers to things and “that” can refer
to both people and things.
 I know the man who you talked to earlier.
I know the man that you talked to earlier.
 The contract which you signed is on the table.
The contract that you signed is on the table.
 The only exception is that “which” can be used when you have a
group of people and you want to select one.
 Which of you knows the answer?
Who vs Whom

 “Whom” refers to people. Many people overuse “whom” to sound more

academic. The rule is to use “who” when you refer to the subject of a clause,
and to use “whom” when referring to the object of a clause.
 You can use this simple shortcut to decide if you should use “who” or “whom”:
 Use “whom” if you can replace “whom” with “him” or “her.”
 Use “who” if you can replace “who” with “he” or “she.”
 For example:
 Whom are you going to invite?
(You are going to invite him.)
 Who wrote the email?
(She wrote the email.)
Exercise

 The person to ___ you are referring no longer works here.

 I liked the book ___ you gave me.
 ___ invited you here?
 I’m not sure ___ kid was here first.
 Give my regards to your brother, ___ was my classmate in high
school.
Exercise

 The person to whom you are referring no longer works here.

 I liked the book that/which you gave me.
 Who invited you here?
 I’m not sure which kid was here first.
 Give my regards to your brother, who/that was my classmate in high
school.
5. The Future Is Not Used in Time and
Conditional Clauses

Always use present tense for time and conditional clauses

Never Use “Will” in Time & Conditional Clauses

 You cannot use “will” to refer to the future in time and conditional
clauses. Time clauses usually begin with a time expression, such as
“when,” “as soon as,” “while,” “until,” “after,” “before,” “as.”
Conditional clauses usually start with “if.”
Convert Future Simple to Present Simple

 You simply need to omit “will” (to refer to the future) so that instead
of the future simple, you will use the present simple.
 Wrong: After she will return, we can talk.
Right: After she returns, we can talk.
Convert Future Continuous to Present Continuous

 Similarly, instead of the future continuous, you should use the present
continuous in time and conditional clauses.
 Wrong: While she will be reading, I’ll be watching a movie.
Right: While she is reading, I’ll be watching a movie.
Convert Future Perfect to Present Perfect

 The future perfect changes into the present perfect and the future
perfect continuous changes into the present perfect continuous.
 Wrong: If she will have finished the book, she can give us the main
ideas.
Right: If she has finished the book, she can give us the main ideas.
Exercise

 Whatever I do, my daughter will not listen to me.

 If she will play the piano at night, we can ask her to take a break.
 When I have talked to him, I’ll know what he thinks.
 Before the doctor will see you, you have to do some tests.
 If you will write her an email, she may change her mind.
Exercise Answers

 Whatever I do, my daughter will not listen to me. (✔)

 If she will plays the piano at night, we can ask her to take a break.
 When I have talked to him, I’ll know what he thinks. (✔)
 Before the doctor will sees you, you have to do some tests.
 If you will write her an email, she may change her mind.
 6. The Present Perfect Is Used When
There Is a Connection with the Present

When to Use Past Simple and When to Use Present Perfect

One Simple Rule for Using the Present Perfect

 You have probably read a lot of rules about when to use the present
perfect and when to use the past. You can reduce them all to one
simple rule: If the speaker feels there is a connection with the
present, then the present perfect should be used.
 A Few Examples

 If the action is in the past and is seen as separate from the present, then you should use the
past. Have a look at the following situations in which we use the present perfect and the past
and check out how this simple rule applies:
 I haven’t seen that movie yet.
(Present perfect — Possible connection with the present: I may want to see the movie, don’t spoil it
for me!)
 I saw that movie yesterday.
(Past tense — No connection with the present: The action happened in the past.)
 I have lived here since 2004.
(Present perfect — Possible connection with the present: You can count the years since I started
living here from 2004 to the present.)
 I last saw him in 2004.
(Past tense — No connection with the present: The action happened in the past.)
Exercise

 I ___ (never tasted) such a good pie before!

 I ___ (see) him in the park two hours ago, so he can’t be at home.
 How long ___ (you, wait) here?
 She ___ (just, talk) to her father on the phone so we know he is safe.
 They ___ (buy) a new car so they are selling the old one.
 Exercise Answers

 I have never tasted (never tasted) such a good pie before!

 I saw (see) him in the park two hours ago, so he can’t be at home.
 How long have you been waiting (you, wait) here?
 She just talked (just, talk) to her father on the phone so we know he is
safe.
 They have bought (buy) a new car so they are selling the old one.
7. Do Not Use Inversions in Embedded
Questions

Leave the Interrogative Sentence Structure in Embedded Questions

What are Embedded Questions?

 Embedded questions are used when you want to make a question

more polite and less direct. You form embedded questions by using a
short introductory phrase, such as
 Can/Could you tell me…?
 I wonder…
 I would like to know…
 After the introductory phrase you should not use an inversion like in
normal questions.
 Let’s Look at a Few Examples

 (Normal Question) Are you going to the party?

(Embedded Question) I would like to know if you are going to the party.
 (Normal Question) Do you have any siblings?
(Embedded Questions) I wonder if you have any siblings.
 (Normal Question) How long have you been waiting?
(Embedded Question) I wonder how long you have been waiting.
 Only use a question mark at the end if the introductory phrase is a question.
 Can you tell me how long you have been living here?
(The introductory phrase “Can you tell me?” is a question.)
 I want to know how long you have been waiting here.
(The introductory phrase “I want to know” is not a question.)
Exercise

 When will they move to the new location?

 I wonder ___
 How often do you come here?
 Can you tell me___
 What time did you finish writing the email?
 Tell me___
 Did you get any free samples?
 I want to ask you ___
 Did they tell you where to wait?
 I’d like to know ___
Exercise Answer

 When will they move to the new location?

 I wonder when they will move to the new location.
 How often do you come here?
 Can you tell me how often you come here?
 What time did you finish writing the email?
 Tell me what time you finished writing the email.
 Did you get any free samples?
 I want to ask you whether you got any free samples.
 Did they tell you where to wait?
 I’d like to know whether they told you where to wait.
 8. To Express Contrast, the Correct
Structure Depends on the Phrase Used

There are several phrases you can use to express contrast in English, but they don’t all follow the same structure.
In spite of/Despite + [noun]/[verb ending in -ing]

 In spite of the weather, he decided to go surfing.

(In spite of + [noun])
 Despite writing the letter in the morning, he didn’t manage to post it
today.
(Despite + [verb ending in -ing])
However/No matter how + [adjective]/[adverb]

 No matter how fit you are, you still shouldn’t take such risks.

(No matter how + [adjective])
 However hard I try, I can’t learn Chinese.
(However + [adverb])
Although/Even though/Even if + [subject] + [verb]

 He was not ready for the finals, although/even though he studied a

lot.
 Although/Even though he studied a lot, he was not ready for the
finals.
 Even if he studied a lot, he wouldn’t be ready for the finals.
Whatever + [noun]

 Whatever the risks, I am sure I will follow his advice.

Whatever/No matter what + [subject] + [verb]

 Whatever you say, I won’t believe you now that you’ve lied to me.
 No matter what he does, she won’t trust him again.
“However,” “nonetheless” and “though”

 “However”, “nevertheless” and “though” can be used independently

to express contrast with the sentence before. They are separated by a
comma from the rest of the sentence in which they appear.
Correct Usage of “However,” “nonetheless” and “though”

 “However” can be used both at the beginning and at the end of the sentence,
“nevertheless” is used only at the beginning and “though” is used only at the end
of the sentence.
 Her attitude is not positive at all. However, she has very good technical skills.
 Her linguistic skills are far from excellent. She excels in her determination to
learn, however.
 This has been a tough year for the company. Nevertheless, there is hope for
growth this year.
 The rooms were very spacious and the food delicious. The location wasn’t
ideal, though.
Exercise

 The weather was nice. The hotel facilities were terrible. (although)
 Her presentation was very good. The audience was not impressed.
(however good)
 She is making progress with writing. She is still struggling with
speaking. (despite)
 The car is very fast. It’s too unsafe for me. (though)
 The marketing campaign went really well. We didn’t sell much. (even
though)
Exercise Answer

 Although the weather was nice, the hotel facilities were terrible.
(although)
 However good her presentation was, the audience was not impressed.
(however good)
 Despite making progress with writing, she is still struggling with
speaking. (despite)
 The car is very fast. It’s too unsafe for me though (though)
 Even though the marketing campaign went really well, we didn’t sell
much. (even though)