How do stars form?

The Nebular Hypothesis

 Observations
• Stars can be seen in various stages of
formation.
• Stars seem to have been forming
continuously since the formation of the
Universe.
• Star formation continues today.
• Observations synthesized into the Nebular
Hypothesis.
 Our Sun: an example
of stellar evolution

• Our Sun began as a nebula, approximately 5

billion years ago.
• A nebula is an enormous cloud of gasses
(mainly Hydrogen) and dust
• Nebula may become disturbed by shock
waves, for example from a nearby
supernova.
Example of a nebula
 Nebula begins to contract

• As the molecules of gas and dust move

closer together, they experience stronger
gravitational attraction.
• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
• Fg = g(m1m2)/d2
• Most mass concentrates at the center as the
nebula contracts.
Nebula begins to take a more
definite shape.
Shape becomes spherical with
equatorial disk
 Will a star form?
• If mass is sufficient, gravity at the center of
the sphere may be great enough to “squash”
atoms together.
• 4 H atoms are fused to form 1 He atom in a
nuclear reaction (not chemical).
• Nuclear reaction is nuclear fusion, which
releases tremendous energy.
• A star is born!
 Stable stars

• Radiant energy produced by fusion causes

the star to expand.
• Gravity holds the star together.
• Gas pressure/radiant energy is balanced by
gravity, so the star is stable.
• The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram
shows these stars as the main sequence.
The H-R Diagram
Another version of the H-R
Diagram
 H-R Diagram

• Shows relationships among size,

temperature and brightness (luminosity or
magnitude).
• Larger, stable stars are hotter and brighter.
• Large, hot stars burn out faster than smaller,
cooler stars.
 Stellar Evolution
and the H-R Diagram
• What happens when a star exhausts its
nuclear fuel?
• Depends on size
• Star core collapses on itself, but heats the
outer envelope.
• Result may be: White dwarf, white dwarf
with planetary nebula, red giant, neutron
star or black hole.
 Stellar collapse
• May result in gravitational heating and
eventual burnout.
• May result in renewed fusion (He is fused
this time).
• Collapse may produce explosion
(supernova).
• Remnant of supernova may be a neutron
star or a black hole.
 Products of fusion

• H is fused to form He
• He is fused to form C and other, heavier
chemical elements.
• Heavier elements are recycled into new
nebulae, and/or new stars and planets.
• Implication?
 Heavy Elements

• Since all elements heavier than H are

produced by fusion in stars,
• We are made of Stardust !!!
Summary: Nebular Hypothesis
 So what happened to the disk?

• The disk that surrounds the central star may

• 1) be swallowed as the star initially
expands.
• 2) remain as a disk or a series of rings
• 3) may form planets that orbit the central
star.
 Our Solar System

• Sun began to radiate energy about 5 billion

years ago.
• Surrounding disk condensed into 9
(possibly 8) planets and an asteroid belt.
• Earth is one of those nine planets.
• Earth condensed approximately 4.6 billion
years ago.
 How do we know the timing?

• Age of Sun via chemical composition and

known rate of fusion: about 5 Ga
• Oldest Earth rock: 3.98 Ga
• Age of oldest Moon Rocks: 4.2 Ga
• Age of Meteorites: 4.5 Ga
• Ga = Giga-annum = billion years
• 1. What is the first stage of the solar system
formation?
• 2. What caused the disc to collapse?
• 3. Nebulae are primarily composed of what
element?
• 4. What event marked the birth of the Sun?
• 5. What are the terrestrial planets composed
of?
• 6. What were the most abundant elements
after the Big Bang?
• 7. What formed first, the Sun or the
planets?
• 8. Nebula's are mixtures of gases and
what?
• 9. The ______is between the orbits of
Mars & Jupiter.
• 10. What do the first four outer planets
have in common? 
•
• 11. The __________ has planets, moons,
comets, and asteroids.
• 12. Earth and the other planets
closest to the Sun are made mostly
of _______
• 13. The planets of the solar system
formed as 
• 14. A cloud of gas and dust from
which bodies in space are formed
• 15. What is the nebular hypothesis?