Module 2.

the Concept of thermodynamic,

Energy and Energy Transfer
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Basic laws of Thermodynamics

• Zeroth Law – Thermal equilibrium, defines Temp.
• First Law – Energy Conservation (no direction)
Relation between work and heat.
• Second Law – Energy quality and process.
Energy Conservation (define direction and entropy )
• Third Law -
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Scope of Thermodynamics
• Conversion between heat and mechanical work and vice versa.
• General procedure for
• Problem definition
• Data collection
• Data analysis
• Solution and implementation decision
Basic Concepts and Definitions
• Thermodynamic is a science of energy
• Energy may be viewed as the capacity to do work OR the
ability to cause changes.

• Energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or
destroyed.
Basic Concepts and Definitions
• One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of
energy principle.
• Conservation of energy principle for the human body.
• The first law of thermodynamics is simply an expression of the
conservation of energy principle.
• The change in the energy content of a body or any other system is
equal to the difference between the energy input and the energy
output, and the energy balance is expressed
Basic Concepts and Definitions
• Energy transfer
 Heat Energy mechanical Energy (petrol engine)
 Mechanical Energy  electrical Energy (generator)
( Example : How do wind turbine work )
 Electrical Energy  mechanical Energy (motor)
 Heat Energy  electrical Energy (power plant)
Classical and Statistical Thermodynamic
• A substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules.
• The properties of the substance naturally depend on the behavior
of these particles.
• The study of thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual particles ( molecules ) is called classical
thermodynamics.
• The study of thermodynamics based on the average behavior of large
groups of individual particles, is called statistical thermodynamics.

Internal Energy form

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Defining view point

• Macroscopic (classical thermodynamics)
• It is a total view and does not consider the behavior of the system on
molecular or atomic level.
• The value of the properties of the system are taken the average value.
• The analysis of macroscopic system requires simple mathematical
formula
• Microscopic (statistical thermodynamics)
• It consider the large number of molecular level and these molecules have
different velocities and energies which are constantly changing with time.
• Advanced statistical and mathematical methods which are needed to
explain the changes in the system.
• large number of variables are needed.
• Approach is complicated.
• So, we will use Classical thermodynamics method
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Important Definitions in Thermodynamic

• System – is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen
for study.
• Surrounding is the mass or region outside the system is called the
surroundings.
• Boundary
The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surrounding is called the BOUNDARY. The boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable.
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Types Of Systems
• Closed system or Non flow system ( as Control mass )
( It is a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass
• No mass transfer across boundary.
• Heat and work can cross boundary
Examples
• Pressure cooker filled with steam
• Cylinder and piston arrangement

• Open system or flow system

An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly
selected region in space.
The boundaries of a control volume are called a control
surface
• Mass, energy and work cross boundary
Examples – Petrol or diesel Engines, Gas Turbine,
water pump, condenser, compressor.
Adiabatic system
No heat cross boundary
Mass and work can cross boundary.

Isolated system
No work, energy and mass
crosses boundary.
Liquid Oxygen cylinders
Control volume and surface

.
Control volume and surface
If the volume of the system under study remains constant then
this volume is called control volume and the control volume is
bounded by the control surface.

An open system ( a control volume ) with inlet and one exit

 Properties Of a System
• Property: is a measurable characteristics of a system.
The properties like pressure , temperature ,volume ,density, mass,
viscosity, thermal conductivity , internal energy , enthalpy , entropy,
specific heat , etc, are to be measured very often for the purpose of study.

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 Type Of Properties in a System
Properties are considered to be either
intensive or extensive.
• Intensive properties: The properties
whose values do not depend on the mass
of the system are intensive properties
such as temperature, pressure, and
density.
All specific properties are intensive
properties such as specific volume ,
specific internal energy.
• Extensive properties: The properties
whose values depend on the mass of the
system are extensive properties such as
total volume, weight , surface area ( OR
Those whose values depend on the size
—or extent—of the system).
• Criterion to differentiate intensive
and extensive properties.
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 Properties Of a System
• Density : is defined as mass per unit volume.
The density of most gases is proportional to pressure, and inversely
proportional to temperature. Liquids and solids, on the other hand,
are essentially incompressible substances.The density of liquids and
solids depends more strongly on temperature than they do on
pressure. Amore frequently used property in thermodynamics is the
specific volume.It is the reciprocal of density and is defined as the
volume per unit mass:

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State and Equilibrium

State : The condition of the system as described by certain value of

some of its properties is called the state of the system.
Equilibrium :Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word
equilibrium implies a state of balance
Type of Equilibrium :
• A system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature
is the same throughout the entire system.

The state of the nitrogen is

fixed by two independent,
intensive properties
A closed system reaching
thermal equilibrium
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Type Of Equilibrium

• Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in

mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition does
not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
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PROCESS
Process:Any change that a system undergoes from
one equilibrium state to another.
• The series of states ( marked as * ) through
which a system passes during a process is called
the path of the process

A system at two different states

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Two properties define a state . All the

properties are state functions or
point functions.
Definition :The characteristic which is
a state function of a system is a
property e.g. pressure , temperature ,
volume , internal energy , entropy .
etc.
Path Functions : Quantities like work
and heat can not be represented by a
point on a thermodynamic plane.
Work are represented by area under
the curve on P-V plane. Heat is
represented by area under the curve
on T-S Plane . Work and heat are not
The P-V diagram of a compressionproperty.
process.
 Gas Processes
We will study the following processes for non-flow ( Closed System )
where n ( polytropic index , real number )
 Gas Processes
We will study the following processes for non-flow ( Closed System )
Gas Processes
 Gas Processes
1. Isothermal process or Constant Temperature Process:
A process during which the temperature T remains constant.
2. Isobaric process or Constant Pressure Process:
A process during which the pressure P remains constant.
3. Isochoric (or isometric) or Constant Volume Process:
A process during which the volume V remains constant.
4. Isentropic or Constant Entropy Process ( Adiabatic process ):
A process during which the entropy S remains constant and
5. Polytropic Process:
Polytropic is general process which pressure ,volume and temperature
are variables
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Cycles or cyclic process

• If a system undergoes various
processes in succession in such a
way that at end of the last process it
return to its original state , the
system is said to have completed a
cycle.
• Quasi-Static Process ( or reversible
process ) proceeds from one
equilibrium state to another
equilibrium state till the end of the
process.
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Cycles or cyclic process

• Non Quasi-Static Process ( or
Irreversible process ) : In this
process only end states are
equilibrium states and all other
states are non-equilibrium states.
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Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
• pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid but, pressure
in solids is stress.
• pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons
per square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa).
• 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 ,

• The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute

pressure
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Pressure

Absolute , gauge and vacuum pressure

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Temperature and zeroth law of thermodynamics

• Temperature: It is a physical quantity that

indicates the degrees of hot and cold in a

numerical scale.

• Thermal equilibrium: The state of stopping

the heat transfer between two different bodies.

• Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two

bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third

body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
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Temperature scale
• Celsius scale: This scale used two reference points zero and
100˚C. Zero refers to the ice point (the temperature of mixture of ice
and water at atmospheric pressure). 100˚C refers to steam point (the
temperature at which the water is boiling).
• Kelvin scale: In this scale the lowest temperature is the absolute
zero corresponding to 0 K, while the other reference is the ice point
273 K.

-273 ˚C 0 ˚C 100˚C
Celsius scale

Kelvin scale

0K 273K 373K

 C   273
Lowest
temperature
Ice point Boiling point
T K   T o