WEEK 15

BORROWED THEORY
 Psychology
Sigmund Freud
 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

-Austrian, doctor
-father of psychoanalysis
One of the first psychologists to study
human motivation
-Psychiatry vs. Psychology
-up until 20th century frontal
lobotomies were performed on
patients
Freud-believed that mental illness is a
result of nurture, not nature.
He asked the question:
“What makes people do things?”
Answer: MOTIVATION
Needs motivate human behaviour
(food, shelter, clothing…)
Maslow's hierarchy of human needs. (From Maslow, A.
(1970}. Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York:
Harper & Row; reprinted by permission of Harper Collins
Publishers.)
Being deprived of a need arouses a feeling called a
DRIVE OR DESIRE. Animals respond
instinctively, humans learn various ways to respond.
Human motivation explains the reasons why people
behave the way they do.
People have DRIVES OR DESIRES in the back of
their minds
ie: Will to live, will to die
Some of these desires cause people to behave
irrationally.
People are born with a certain number
of instincts or DRIVES (human
instinctive behaviour)
The human mind has 3 aspects which
influence behaviour:

SuperEgo

Ego

Id
ID- unconconscious part of the mind
(this part of the mind seeks to bring us pleasure)
-primitive parts of our personality including
aggression and sexual drives
EGO-conscious part of the mind (Rational Self). Decides
what action to take for positive means and what to do
based on what is believed is the right thing to do. Aware of
reality.
SUPEREGO- unconscious part of the mind that
acts as our conscience. Reminds us of what we should do.
The ID and the SUPEREGO are in constant conflict.
Your DRIVE tells you to do one thing , while SOCIETY
tells you to do something else.
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, compared the human
mind to an iceberg. The tip above the water represents consciousness,
and the vast region below the surface symbolizes the unconscious
mind. Of Freud’s three basic personality structures—id, ego, and
superego—only the id is totally unconscious.
The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-
seventh of its bulk above water" (S. Freud)
 If you don’t resolve this conflict between
the ID and the EGO, you may experience
unhappiness or mental distress.

Thus, in order to understand motivation,

you must understand what is in your
unconscious memory. This is the basis for
PSYCHOANALYSIS.
“Psychoanalysis has as its core the idea
that each of us has an unconscious part
whose existence, activities and thoughts
are hidden behind a mental barrier that we
cannot voluntarily remove. Behind this
barrier are repressed and psychologically
dangerous thoughts that give rise to
unconscious conflicts, which in turn, can
result in psychological and physical
symptoms.”
- Plotnik, p. 514
 TOPIC/ CONTENT
III. Different Views of Non-nursing Theories:

3. Developmental Theory

a. Psycho analytic and Psychosexual - Sigmund Freud

b. Psychosocial - Erik Erikson
c. Cognitive- Jean Piaget
d. Moral- Lawrence Kohlberg
Psychosexual Theories
Psychosocial Development by Erick Erickson
 COGNITIVE
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget
1896- 1980
 COGNITIVE
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Stages Of Age
Cognitive Development
1 Sensorimotor birth to 2 years
2 Preoperational 2 to 7 years
3 Concrete Operational 7 to 11 years
4 Formal Operational 12 years +
 COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
🞜 Piaget believed children’s schemes, or logical mental
structures, change with age and are initially action-
based (sensorimotor) and later move to a mental
(operational) level.
🞜 Each stage is more advanced than the preceding stage
because it involves new reasoning and thinking
abilities
🞜 Children’s cognitive performance is directly related to
the stage they are in, but children don’t always move
from one stage to another at the same time.
 Stage 1: SENSORIMOTOR
(Birth to 2 years)
🞜 Infants interacts with and learn about
their environment by relating their
sensory experiences (hearing and seeing)
to their motor actions

🞜 A newborn’s primary way of interacting

with the world is through reflexive
responses, such as sucking and grasping
 Stage 1: SENSORIMOTOR
(birth to 2 years)
🞜 OBJECT PERMANENCE

- understanding that objects or events continue

to exist even if they can no longer be heard,
touched or sensed

- At early part of sensorimotor stage, children

have no sense of object permanence, as if
things that are out of sight no longer exist

- Develops slowly during 9 month old

 Stage 1: SENSORIMOTOR
(birth to 2 years)
🞜 OBJECT PERMANENCE (cont.)

- At the end of this stage, a 2-year old can think

about things that are not present and can
form simple plans for solving problems, such
as searching for things
 Stage 1: SENSORIMOTOR
(Birth to 2 years)
🞜 SEPARATION ANXIETY

- Fear of being separated with parents

- “Hide and Seek”- play

= teaches them that if someone will be gone or
separate, he/she will soon come back

= children can tolerate short periods of

separation
 Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL
(2 to 7 years)
🞜 Children learn to use symbols, such as words or
mental images, to think about things that are
not present and to help them solve simple
problems
🞜 A child can talk about things that are not
physically present by representing it by a
drawing or by pretending
🞜 Limitation:
-Conservation
-Egocentric Thinking
 Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL
(2 to 7 years)
🞜 Conservation
- Refers to the fact that the amount of substance remains the
same even though its shape changes

- Limited during the Preoperational Stage

=the amount of substance differ as it shape changes
 Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL
(2 to 7 years)
🞜 Conservation (cont.)
 Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL
(2 to 7 years)
🞜 Conservation (cont.)

A B C A B C
Two identical beakers shown to Child is asked if (A) and (C) have
child, and then experimenter the same amount of liquid. The
pours liquid from (B) into (C) preoperational child says “no”
and will point to (C) as having
more liquid than (A).
Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL (2 to 7 years)

🞜 Conservation (cont.)
Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL (2 to 7 years)

🞜 Egocentric Thinking

- Refers to children seeing and thinking of the

world only from their own viewpoint and having
difficulty appreciating another person’s point of
view
Stage 2: PREOPERATIONAL (2 to 7 years)
🞜 Egocentric Thinking (cont.)
Stage 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL(7 to 11 years)

🞜 Children can perform a number of logical mental operations on concrete

objects (physically present)

🞜 Mental operations include the ability to classify objects according to some

dimension, such as height or length, and the ability to figure out relationships
between objects, such as larger and smaller.

🞜 Grasp the concept of conservation and classification

 Stage 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
(7 to 11 years)
🞜 Conservation

- Refers to the fact that the amount of

substance remains the same even though its
shape changes

- Mastered during the Concrete operational

Stage
=the amount of substance stays the same
even if its shape changes
 Stage 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
(7 to 11 years)
🞜 Conservation (cont.)
 Stage 3: CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
(7 to 11 years)
🞜 Classification

- Classifying objects according to two

categories

- Ex:
A 10-yr old can now classify puppies
according to two categories, such as color and
size
 Stage 4: FORMAL OPERATIONAL
(12 years +)
🞜 Adolescents and adults develop the ability to
think about and solve abstract problems in a
logical manner

🞜 They encounter exciting new worlds of abstract

ideas and hypothetical concepts.
 MORAL
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg
1927- 1987
 MORAL
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Level Stages Of
Moral Development
1 Punishment-Obedience Orientation
PRE-CONVENTIONAL
2 Instrumental Relativist Orientation
3 Good Boy-Good Girl Orientation
CONVENTIONAL
4 Law and Order Orientation
5
POST-CONVENTIONAL Social Contract Orientation
6 Universal Ethical Principle
Orientation
 MORAL
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
• Stage 1 – Punishment-Obedience Orientation
LEVEL I • Stage 2 – Instrumental Relativist Orientation

• Stage 3 – Good Boy-Good Girl Orientation

LEVEL II • Stage 4 – Law and Order Orientation

• Stage 5 – Social Contract Orientation

LEVEL III • Stage 6 – Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
 MORAL
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
🞜 The theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget
and a fascination with children's reactions to moral
dilemmas
🞜 Moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical
behavior, has six developmental stages - each more
adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than
the last
🞜 He determined that the process of moral
development was principally concerned with
justice and that its development continued
throughout the life span.
 HEINZ DILEMMA
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It
was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had
recently discovered.
The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid
$200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of
the drug.
The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he
knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together
about $1,000 which is half of what it cost.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him
to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said:
“No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from
it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to
steal the drug for his wife.
 HEINZ DILEMMA

Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory

to steal the drug for his wife?
Why or why not?
 MORAL
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
Levels of Moral Reasoning

I. Pre-conventional—moral reasoning is based on

external rewards and punishments

II. Conventional—laws and rules are upheld simply

because they are laws and rules

III. Post-conventional—reasoning based on personal

moral standards
 Level I: PRE-CONVENTIONAL

-Punishments and rewards dominate the sense of right &

wrong

-Morality is externally controlled

-Rules of authority figures must be respected.

-Behaviour that results in punishment are bad

-Behaviour that results in rewards are good

Stage #1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
- Morality is based upon the physical
punishment that follows an action,
rather than right or wrong. The
concern is for self
- "Will I get into trouble for doing (or
not doing) it?" Good behavior is
associated with avoiding punishment.
-Ex: The child won’t grab the candy at
the supermarket for fear of being
slapped

(obedience)
Stage #1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children
of Stage 1

For stealing: Heinz should steal the medicine because

it is only worth $200 and not how much the
druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even offered to
pay for it and was not stealing anything else.

Against stealing: Heinz should not steal the medicine

because he will consequently be put in prison
which will mean he is a bad person.
Stage #2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

-The concern is "What's in it for

me?"
-Action is judged right if it helps in
satisfying one's needs or involves
a fair exchange.
-Ex: A mother tells her child: “If you
are quiet at the mall, I will buy
you an ice cream.”

(self-interest)
Stage #2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children
of Stage 2

For stealing: Heinz should steal the medicine

because he will be much happier if he saves his
wife, even if he will have to serve a prison
sentence.

Against stealing : Heinz should not steal the

medicine because prison is an awful place, and he
would more likely suffer in a jail cell than over his
wife's death.
 Level II: CONVENTIONAL
-Needs of Laws and society are the defining
features.
-“Don't steal” because it is against the law
-Good behaviour is motivated to maintain the
affection and approval of friends and
relatives
-Understand that standards are set for the
current social system, not getting that there
is self-interest involved (e.g., no such thing
as a bad law)
Stage #3: Good Boy-Good Girl Orientation
-People should live up to the
expectations of the family and
community and behave in "good"
ways.
-Good behavior means having good
motives and interpersonal
feelings such as love, empathy,
trust, and concern for others.
-Ex: Volunteering at a nursing home
is the right thing to do.

(conformity)
Stage #3: Good Boy-Good Girl Orientation
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children
of
Stage 3
For stealing: Heinz should steal the medicine because
his wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband.

Against stealing: Heinz should not steal the drug

because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he
has tried to do everything he can without breaking
the law, you cannot blame him.
 Stage #4: Law and Order Orientation

-While stage three actions are more

concerned with pleasing your
family, stage four is associated
with following society as a whole.
-Emphasis is spent on obeying laws
to maintain social order.
-Ex: If you drink and drive your
endangering the lives of others
on the road, not just yourself.

(law-and-order)
 Stage #4: Law and Order Orientation
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children
of Stage 4
For stealing: Heinz should steal the drug for his wife
but also take the prescribed punishment for the
crime as well as paying the druggist what he is
owed. Criminals cannot just run around without
regard for the law; actions have consequences.

Against stealing: Heinz should not steal the medicine

because the law prohibits stealing, making it illegal.
 Level III: POST-CONVENTIONAL

-Personal moral beliefs and values

-Characterized by references to universal

ethical principles that represent protecting
the rights or of all people

-Most adults do not reach this level.

 Stage #5: Social Contract Orientation
-At stage 5, people want to keep
society functioning. However, a
smoothly functioning society is
not necessarily a good one. Nazi
Germany was a well organized
society, but nine million were
murdered in the process.
-At stage 5, people begin to ask,
"What makes for a good
society?" They begin to think
about society considering the
rights and values that a society
ought to uphold.
(human rights)
 Stage #5: Social Contract Orientation
Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children
of Stage 5

For stealing: Heinz should steal the medicine because

everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of
the law.

Against stealing: Heinz should not steal the medicine

because the scientist has a right to fair
compensation. Even if his wife is sick, it does not
make his actions right.
Stage #6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation
-As human beings we are obligated to
live by the principle that “all men
are created equal” regardless of
race, religion, sexual orientation, or
political belief.
-Justice is universal, so unjust laws
must be broken.
Ex: Rosa Parks refused to sit in the
back of the bus because it was an
unjust law discriminating against
African Americans.

(universal human ethics)

Stage #6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Possible answers for Kohlberg’s dilemma by children

of Stage 6

For stealing: Heinz should steal the medicine,

because saving a human life is a more fundamental
value than the property rights of another person.

Against stealing: Heinz should not steal the medicine,

because others may need the medicine just as
badly, and their lives are equally significant.
 Learning theory
Pavlov Classical conditioning
 Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behavior due to experience.

Learning is more flexible in comparison to the

genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinook
Salmon, for example.
 How Do We Learn?
We learn by association. Our minds
naturally connect events that occur in
sequence.
2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law
of association. Then 200 years ago the
philosophers Locke and Hume reiterated
this law.
 Behaviorists (Reminder From Prologue)
• Behavioral perspective - theorized that
thoughts, or cognition played NO role in
behavior.
– They disagreed with Freud's theories on the
unconscious mind.
– Only observable behavior had meaning to them.
• John Locke: tabula rasa
– Environmental determinism - theory which
states our environment shapes every aspect of
who we were, are, and will be.
 Associative Learning:
Classical Conditioning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.
Associative Learning
Learning to associate a
response
with a consequence.
 Classical Conditioning
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated
classical conditioning. His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Sovfoto

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

 Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
 Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
 Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial learning stage in
classical conditioning in which an association
between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place.

1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the

neutral stimulus needs to come before the
unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should
be about half a second.