Psychological Testing and Measurement (PSY-P631) VU

Lesson 27
Piagetian Approach: Measurement of Cognitive Development

Different from the traditional psychological measurement, we see an approach that measures cognitive
development but does not employ tests the way we do in routine. This approach is the Piagetian approach,
the approach introduced by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Piaget presented his theory of cognitive
development and introduced his methodology for studying and understanding the same. Cognitive
development is the process whereby the development of children understands of the world as a function
of age and experience takes place.
In order to understand the Piagetian approach and methodology, let us refresh our knowledge about
cognitive development. Cognition is the process of knowing as well as what is known. It includes
"knowledge" which is innate/ inborn and present in the form of brain structures and functions. We
‘remember’ the physical environment in which we were brought up and develop perceptual constructs or
knowledge accordingly (seeing, hearing, sounds etc).
Cognition refers to ‘mental processes’ that people use to gather/ acquire knowledge, and also the knowledge
that has been gathered/ acquired subsequently used in mental processes. Cognition and knowledge,
therefore, can be said to have a circular relationship.
Mental processes

Cognitive development involves:

Knowledge
▪ Language,
▪ Mental imagery,
▪ Thinking,
▪ Reasoning,
▪ Problem solving and
▪ Memory development
Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:
Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist, who became interested in epistemology i.e., knowledge and
knowing as a result of his study of philosophy and logic. This interest in observation and epistemology laid
foundation of his theory of cognitive development.
Piaget was influenced by Henri Bergson’s Creative Evolution, unlike most of the other psychologists who
were impressed by Darwin’s theory of evolution. Bergson believed in divine agency instead of chance as
the force behind evolution: life possesses an inherent creative impulse. After having secured a position in
Alfred Binet’s laboratory in Paris he got a chance to observe children’s performance, their right and wrong
answers. Piaget’s work and observation generated an interest in children’s mental processes. The real shift
took place when he started observing his own children from birth onwards. He kept records of their
behavior and used them to trace the origins of children’s thoughts to their behavior as babies; later on he
became interested in the thought of adolescents as well
These experiences resulted in two significant consequences:
1. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
2. Piagetian method of study

Piagetian Method of Investigation:

Piaget’s method is known as the clinical approach which is a form of a structured observation. Piaget used
to present problems/tasks to children of different ages, asked them to explain their answers. Their
explanations were further probed through carefully phrased question.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development:

Cognitive Development takes place in four stages in a set sequence. The sequence of stages is invariant.
The age range of each stage is also described but the age is not invariant. Age specification is arbitrary and
different children may perform the same task at different age levels. The organization of behavior is

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qualitatively different in different Stages. Children throughout the world pass through a series of four stages
of cognitive development in a fixed order.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development:

1. Sensorimotor stage
2. Preoperational stage
3. Concrete operational stage
4. Formal operational stage

Sensorimotor Stage: Infancy: Birth-2 years

The child’s thought is egocentric and confined to action schemes. Development is very rapid in this stage
but thought processes are limited to the immediate world of the child. Development of object permanence
and development of motor skills takes place. The child has little or no capacity for symbolic representation.

Preoperational Stage: Preschool: 2-7 years

Development of representational thought takes place. The child’s thinking is intuitive not logical. A
significant aspect of development at this stage is the development of language and symbolic thinking.
Thinking remains egocentric.

Concrete Operational Stage: Childhood: 7-11 years

At this stage the child’s thinking becomes systematic and logical, but only with regard to concrete objects.
Development of conservation and mastery of concept of reversibility takes place.

Formal Operational Stage: Adolescence and adulthood: 11 years onward

Abstract and logical thought develops at this stage. The person can deal with the abstract and the absent.

Some Piagetian Tasks:

These tasks measure the acquisition of various concepts. The acquisition of concepts is progressive.
Children of different age levels or children belonging to different stages of cognitive development show
different levels of acquisition,

The ‘A-B’ Search Task:

This task is meant for sensorimotor stage children. It is about the acquisition of the concept of object
permanence. In this task two hiding places, A and B, are used. The places are in front of the child. The
places can be something like two place mats or napkins on a table under which an object may be hidden.
An object is hid under either of two and the child has to look for it. The children’s responses vary according
to the stage of development at which they are. Even within the same stage children of different age levels
give different responses. Their responses may be something like this:

A B

4- 8 month olds: these children will not search for the object even when it is hidden under A in front of
them.
8-12 month olds: they will try to search for the object and will find it under A. when the object is shifted
from under A to under B, the child will still look for it under “A” even when it was hidden in front of the
child. This shows egocentric thinking. It is also known as ‘A- not B’ error.
12-18 months: The child can accurately search for the object.

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18-24 months: The child can not only search for the object but can also experiment with it and other similar
objects.

Conservation Tasks:
Conservation is a concept according to which the some properties of an object/ mass matter remain
unchanged or invariant while some others have been changed. For example the weight of an object will
remain the same when its shape has been changed; the number of objects remains unchanged while their
arrangement is changed. Children learn the conservation of mass and number earlier (around 5-6 years of
age) than conservation of weight (around 8-9 years of age).

Conservation of Mass:
Play dough, plasticine, or clay can be used for this task. Take two same sized balls of the dough and ask the
child if the two have the same amount of dough/clay in them. Let the child feel it and then answer. When
he says yes they are the same amount then flatten one ball like a pan cake or chapatti and ask if they still
have the same amount of the pliable material in them. Children at different cognitive levels will respond
differently. If the child says the two had different amounts of mass, and then ask why does he think so.

Conservation of Number:
Take ten coins and arrange them in two parallel rows. Ask the child if there are buttons in same number in
each row.

When the child says yes, then rearrange the buttons and spread buttons in one row distantly so that the row
appears to be longer than the other one. Now ask the child if the two rows contained the same number of
buttons. Children belonging to different levels will respond differently. Those who have not acquired the
concept of conservation of number will say that one row was longer than the other one.

Conservation of Weight:
Once again two, same weight, play dough or clay balls may be used. Ask the child if the two balls had the
same weight. Once the child agrees then change the shape of one of the two balls and convert it into an
oblong. Now ask the child if they were of the same weight. Children belonging to different levels will
respond differently. Those who have not acquired the concept of conservation of weight will say that the
ball and the oblong were of different weight, whereas those who have acquired the concept of conservation
of weight will say that the two objects were of the same weight.

Conservation of Volume:
Put equal amount of water in two same sized glasses or jars.

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Ask the child if the two contained the same amount of water. When the child agrees and says yes, then take
two other, differently sized, containers and pour water in them, one will have a lower level of water and the
other one will have higher level. Ask the child if the two containers had the same amount of water in them.
Once again children at different levels of cognitive development, with reference to conservation of volume,
will give different answers.

Perspective:
The child is asked to imagine if she is standing at the beginning of a long road, and there are trees on both
sides of the road. She is asked to draw and tell how the road and the trees would look from her position.

Significant Influences on Cognition:

Socio- Cultural Factor:

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• Given and debated in the early 1900s socio-cultural approach has now regained interest among
cognitive scientists
• It states that cognitive ability does not start with the anatomy/ biology of the individual or only with
the environment: the culture and society into which the individual is born provide the most important
resources/ clues for human cognitive development.
• They provide the context into which the individual begins his experience of the world.
• Social groups help in person's cognitive development by placing value/ importance on learning certain
skills, thereby providing all important motivation that the person needs and requires in order to learn
and exhibit those skills or behaviors. This results in cognitive development
• One perspective about cognitive ability suggest that there is some sort of innate potential existing within
an individual
• Another suggests that there is potential within the socio- cultural context for development of the
individual. The individual is born into a society of potential intellect. Knowledge will develop largely
based on the evolution of intellect within the society and culture.

Motivation, Cognition and Learning:

• It is believed that cognitive ability alone cannot account for achievement; motivation is also important
in acquiring/ attaining cognitive skills and abilities.
• People learn information that corresponds to, and is in accordance with, their view of the world. They
learn skills that are meaningful to them. e.g. children who are born in a poor family may not give any
attention or importance to the formal education and as adults, they may pass on similar beliefs and
attitudes to their off springs.
• Motivation determines whether or not one is capable of learning. Whether one learns well or not,
depends on one’s own view and that affects the ability to learn. The motivational condition largely
depends on the way the culture responds to achievements and failures. There are culturally developed
attitudes about the probability of learning successfully after one has initially failed to learn. These
attitudes can greatly affect future learning.

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