CHAPTER 1:

FUNDAMENTALS OF DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
DFC 2083 – DATABASE SYSTEM
DATABASE

 Collection of related data that is shared by the various

categories of users to meet the requirements of an
organization’s information.
EVOLUTION OF DATABASE
EVOLUTION OF DATABASE
EVOLUTION OF DATABASE
 ROLE OF DATABASE IN
BUSINESS WORLD

 Application requires data access business rules for any of the

following circumstances:
 Inserting, updating, deleting, and viewing data
 Validating data
 Controlling data security.
 Handling multifiles data access.
Example: Customer Management, Inventory Tracking,
Personnel Database, Analysis
IMPORTANT HISTORICAL
CONTRIBUTIONS

 A PDA is similar to a palmtop computer, except it is even more compact,

and typically has no keyboard, using a touchscreen for all data input.
 Since the screen is so small, many PDAs have a small stylus (plastic
stick) that is used to press things on the screen.
 Most PDAs use some sort of handwriting-recognition system to allow the
user to write on the screen, and have their writing converted into text.
 PDAs tend to be used a 'digital diaries' allowing users to take their e-mail,
documents, appointments, etc. with them wherever they go.
IMPORTANT HISTORICAL
CONTRIBUTIONS

Note: You never see PDAs any more since modern 'smart' phones can do all of this,
and work as a phone too!

Early PDAs, like early palmtops, were pretty basic. But they were a revolutionary way to take
digital data with you on the move. 

In the 1990s every business person either had, or wanted one of these!
PDAs are often called Pocket-PCs (for obvious reasons!)
IMPORTANCE OF DATABASES

 Online Television Streaming

 Social Gaming
 Personal Cloud Storage
 Sports
 Finances
 Government Organizations
 Social Media
 ECommerce
 Healthcare
 Weather
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS

Planning

Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Implementation

Maintenance
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS

Planning
Planning Purpose–preliminary understanding
Deliverable–request for study
Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity– Implementation

enterprise modeling
and early conceptual
Maintenance
data modeling
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS

Purpose–through requirements analysis and

Planning structuring
Deliverable–functional system specifications
Analysis
Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity–Thorough Implementation

and integrated conceptual
data modeling
Maintenance
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
Purpose–information requirements elicitation
Planning and structure
Deliverable–detailed design specifications
Analysis

Logical
Logical Design
Design

Physical Design

Database activity– Implementation

logical database design
(transactions, forms,
Maintenance
displays, views, data
integrity and security)
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
Purpose–develop technology and
Planning organizational specifications
Deliverable–program/data
Analysis structures, technology purchases,
organization redesigns
Logical Design

Physical Design
Physical Design

Database activity– Implementation

physical database design
(define database to DBMS,
Maintenance
physical data organization,
database processing programs)
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
Purpose–programming, testing, training,
Planning installation, documenting
Deliverable–operational programs,
Analysis documentation, training materials

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity–
database implementation, Implementation
Implementation
including coded programs,
documentation, Maintenance
installation and conversion
DATABASE DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS

Planning Purpose–monitor, repair, enhance

Deliverable–periodic audits
Analysis

Logical Design

Physical Design

Database activity–
database maintenance, Implementation
performance analysis
and tuning, error Maintenance
Maintenance
corrections
SHARING CONCEPT DATA IN
DATABASE
 PROPERTIES OF DATABASES

Completeness Ensures that users can access the data they want.

Integrity Ensures that data is both consistent (no contradictory data) and correct (no
invalid data), and ensures that users trust the database.

Flexibility Ensures that a database can evolve to satisfy changing user requirements.

Efficiency Ensures that users do not have unduly long response times when accessing
data.

Usability Ensures that data can be accessed and manipulated in ways which match
user requirements.
DBMS

 Collection of interrelated data

 Set of programs to access the data
 DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
 DBMS provides an environment that is both convenient and efficient to
use.
 Database Applications:
 Banking: all transactions
 Airlines: reservations, schedules
 Universities: registration, grades
 Sales: customers, products, purchases
 Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
 Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
 Databases touch all aspects of our lives
PURPOSE OF DATABASE
SYSTEM
 In the early days, database applications were built on top of file systems
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data:
 Data redundancy and inconsistency
 Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
 Difficulty in accessing data
 Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
 Data isolation — multiple files and formats
 Integrity problems
 Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become part of program code
 Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
PURPOSE OF DATABASE SYSTEM

 Drawbacks of using file systems (cont.)

 Atomicity of updates
 Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates carried out
 E.g. transfer of funds from one account to another should either complete or not happen at all
 Concurrent access by multiple users
 Concurrent accessed needed for performance
 Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
 E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the same time

 Security problems
 Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems
VARIOUS COMMON DBMS

 Library
 Hospital
 University
 Tourism
 Organization
Problems: Traditional approach

 Data Security
 Data Redundancy
 Data Isolation
 Program/ Data Dependence
 Concurrent Access Anomalies
Data Security

 The data as maintained in flat files is easily accessible and

therefore not secure.
 Example: the Customer_Transaction file has details about the
total available balance of all customers.
 A customer wants information about his/her account balance.
 In a file system it is difficult to give the customer access to
only his/her data in the file.
 Thus enforcing security constraints for entire file or for certain
data items are difficult.
Data Redundancy

 Often the same information is duplicated in two or more files.

 It may lead to inconsistency
 Assume the same data is repeated in two or more files. If
change is made to data in one file, it is required that change be
made to the data in the other file as well.
 If this is not done, it will lead to multiple different values for
same data field.
Data Isolation

 Data isolation means that all the related data is not available in
one file.
 Generally, the data scattered in various files, and the files may
be in different formats, therefore writing new application
programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.
Program/ Data Dependence

 Assume in a banking system there is need to find out the

names of all customers who live within a particular postal-code
area.
 But there is only a program to generate the list of all
customers.
 The bank officer has now two choices: either obtain the list of
all customers and extract the needed information manually or
ask a system programmer to write the necessary application
program.
 Both the alternatives are obviously unsatisfactory.
Concurrent Access Anomalies

Many systems allow multiple users to update the data simultaneously. In

such environment, interaction of concurrent updates may result in
inconsistent data.
Example: Bank account A containing Rs. 6000/-. If two transactions of
withdraw funds( Rs 500/- and Rs 1000/- respectively) from account
about same time, result of the concurrent executions may leave the
account in an incorrect state.
Program on the behalf of each withdrawal read the old balance, reduce
amount and write result back.
If both two programs are concurrent they both may read the value Rs
6000/-.
Depending on which one writes the value last, the account may contain
either Rs 5500/- or Rs 5000/-, rather than the correct value of Rs 4500/-
What is the solution?
  
Importance of having DBMS

 It helps make data management more efficient and effective.

  A database management system stores, organizes and manages a large
amount of information within a single software application.
 Use of this system increases efficiency of business operations and
reduces overall costs.
Centralize vs. distributed database

 Centralize
A single central database accessed by
multiple users.

+ Easier to organise, edit, query and

backup.
- Can be slower because of high
usage / load.
Centralize vs. distributed database

 Distributed

Database split into multiple

files.

+ Data access and retrieval

faster at nearest points

- Need to be ensure data is

consistent / synchronised
DATA MODEL

 A data model is a collection of concepts for describing data.

 A schema is a description of a particular collection of data,
using the a given data model.
 The relational model of data is the most widely used model
today.
 Main concept: relation, basically a table with rows and columns.
 Every relation has a schema, which describes the columns, or
fields.
The Evolution of Data Models

 Hierarchical
 Network
 Relational
 Entity relationship
 Object oriented
Evolution of Major Data Models
 The Hierarchical Model—Evolution

 North American Rockwell was the prime contractor for the Apollo project which
culminated in the moon landing.
 This project required the management of millions of parts – a complex computer
file system was used.
 An audit of the tapes revealed that 60% of the data was redundant
 This led Rockwell to develop an alternate strategy to manage their data
 The Hierarchical Model—Evolution

 GUAM (Generalized Update Access Method)

 Based on the recognition that the many smaller parts would come together
as components of still larger components
 In the mid 1960s. IBM joined Rockwell to expand the capabilities of
GUAM, replacing computer tapes with disk storage
 Information Management System (IMS)
 The result of the joint effort between Rockwell and IBM
 World’s leading mainframe hierarchical database system in the 1970s and
early 1980s
 The Hierarchical Model—
Characteristics

 Basic concepts form the basis for subsequent database development

 Limitations lead to a different way of looking at database design
 Basic concepts show up in current data models
 Best understood by examining manufacturing process
A Hierarchical Structure

2- 42
Hierarchical Structure—Characteristics

 Each parent can have many children

 Each child has only one parent
 Tree is defined by path that traces parent segments to child segments, beginning from
the left
 Hierarchical path
 Ordered sequencing of segments tracing hierarchical structure
 Preorder traversal or hierarchic sequence
 “Left-list” path
 If Part D is most frequently accessed and updated, change the database structure to place Part
D closer to the left side of the tree
 This will give a shorter traversal
 The Hierarchical Model

 Advantages over a file system

 Conceptual simplicity – easy to understand the model layout
 Database security
 Data independence (a change in a data type will be automatically cascaded
throughout the database by the DBMS, thereby eliminating the need to make
changes in the program segments that reference the changes data type)
 Database integrity – always a link between parent and child
 Efficiency – very efficient when it contains a large volume of data in 1:M
relationships and whose relationships are fixed over time
 The Hierarchical Model
(continued)
 Disadvantages over a file system
 Complex implementation – detailed knowledge of the physical data storage characteristics
is required by the designers and programmers
 Difficult to manage – relocation of segments requires application changes
 Lacks structural independence
 Complex applications programming and use – programmers and end users must know
precisely how the data are physically distributed within the database
 Implementation limitations – difficult to support M:N relationships
 Lack of standards – no standard DDL and no DML
Child with Multiple Parents

2- 46
 The Network Model

 Created to
 Represent complex data relationships more effectively
 Improve database performance
 Impose a database standard
 Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Database Task Group (DBTG)
Crucial Database Components

 Schema
 Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the database administrator
 Subschema
 Defines database portion “seen” by the application programs that actually produce the desired
information from data contained within the database
 Data Management Language (DML)
 Define data characteristics and data structure in order to manipulate the data
Data Management
Language Components

 Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)

 Enables database administrator to define schema components
 Subschema DDL
 Allows application programs to define database components that
will be used
 DML
 Manipulates database contents
 Network Model—Basic Structure

 Resembles hierarchical model

 Collection of records in 1:M relationships
 A relationship is called a Set
 Composed of at least two record types
 Owner
 Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent
 Member
 Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child
 A record can appear as a member in more than one set i.e., a member may have
multiple owners
 A Network Data Model

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel 2- 51

 The Network Data Model

 Advantages
 Conceptual simplicity
 Handles more relationship types
 Data access flexibility – no need for a preorder traversal
 Promotes database integrity – must first define the owner and then the member record
 Data independence
 Conformance to standards
The Network Data Model
(continued)

 Disadvantages
 System complexity
 Lack of structural independence
 The Relational Model

 Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970

 Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
 Conceptually simple
 Computers lacked power to implement the relational model
 Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated relational database software
 The Relational Model: Basic
Structure

 Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

 Performs same basic functions provided by hierarchical and network DBMS systems,
plus other functions
 RDBMS handles all the complex physical detais
 Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its ability to let the user/designer operate
in a human logical environment
The Relational Model:Basic
Structure

 Table (relations)
 Matrix consisting of a series of row/column intersections
 Related to each other by sharing a common entity characteristic
 Relational schema
 Visual representation of relational database’s entities, attributes
within those entities, and relationships between those entities
Linking Relational Tables

2- 57
 Relational Table

 Stores a collection of related entities

 Resembles a file
 Relational table is purely logical structure
 How data are physically stored in the database is of no concern to the user or the
designer
 This property became the source of a real database revolution
A Relational Schema

2- 59
 The Relational Model

 Advantages
 Structural independence – changes in the relational data structure do not affect the DBMS’s
data access in any way
 Improved conceptual simplicity by concentrating on the logical view
 Easier database design, implementation, management, and use
 Ad hoc query capability - SQL
 Powerful database management system
The Relational Model (continued)

 Disadvantages
 Substantial hardware and system software overhead
 Can facilitate poor design and implementation
 May promote “islands of information” problems
The Entity Relationship Model

 Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data modeling

 Introduced by Peter Chen in 1976
 Graphical representation of entities and their relationships in a
database structure
 The Entity Relationship Model—
Basic Structure

 Entity relationship diagram (ERD)

 Uses graphic representations to model database components
 Entity is mapped to a relational table
 Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table
 Entity set is collection of like entities
 Connectivity labels types of relationships
 Diamond connected to related entities through a relationship line
The Entity Relationship Model—
CrowFoot Components
Relationships: The Basic Chen ERD

2- 65
Relationships:
The Basic Crow’s Foot ERD

2- 66
 The Entity Relationship Model

 Advantages
 Exceptional conceptual simplicity
 Visual representation
 Effective communication tool
 Integrated with the relational data model
The Entity Relationship Model

 Disadvantages
 Limited constraint representation
 Limited relationship representation
 No data manipulation language
 Loss of information content
THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

• ANSI-SPARC – also known as American National Standards

Institute, Standards Planning And Requirements Committee

Objective :
separate each user’s view of the database from the way it is
physically represented.
THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

...
END USER

USER 1 USER 2

EXTERNAL
EXTERNAL VIEW 1 EXTERNAL VIEW 2
LEVEL

External/conceptual mapping

CONCEPTUAL CONCEPTUAL
LEVEL SCHEMA

Conceptual/internal mapping

INTERNAL INTERNAL SCHEMA

LEVEL

Data Data Data

STORED DATABASE
THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

 Internal Schema
 Physical representation of the database on the computer.
 Describes the physical storage structure of the database.
 How the data is stored in the database.
THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

 Conceptual Schema
 Describes the structure of the whole database for a community of
users.
 It hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates
on describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations,
and constraints.
THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

 External Schema
 The user’s view of database.
 It includes a number of external schemas or user views.
 Each external schema describes the part of the database that a
particular user is interested in and hides the rest of the database
from user.
CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

 Operate in a networked environment

 Generally the client process requires some resource, which the

server provides to the client

 Clients and servers can reside in the same computer, or they can
be on different computers that are networked together, usually:
 Client – Workstation (usually a PC) that requests and uses a service.
manages user interface and runs applications.
 Server – Holds database and DBMS.Computer (PC/mini/mainframe)
that provides a service. For DBMS, server is a database server.
CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

 Two-Tier Client-Server Architecture

 In a two-tier architecture, any client can get service from any
server by initiating a request over the network.
 With two tier client-server architectures, the user interface is
usually located in the user’s desktop and the services are usually
supported by a server that is a powerful machine that can service
many clients.
 Processing is split between the user interface and the database
management server.
CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

Two-Tier Client-Server Architecture

 CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

 Three-Tier Client-Server Architecture

 To improve performance for large number of users and also improves flexibility
compared to the two tier approach
 In the three-tier architecture, a middleware was added between the user system
interface client environment and the server environment
 The middleware keeps track of all server locations. It also translates client’s
requests into server understandable form.
 For example, the middleware provides queuing, the client can deliver its request
to the middleware because the middleware will access the data and return the
answer to the client.
CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

 The middleware performs many activities such as:

 It knows the addresses of servers. So, based on client
requests, it can locate the servers.
 It can translate between client and server formats of
data and vice versa

 Additional Features – Security:

 Encrypt the data at the server before transmission
 Decrypt data at the client
CLIENT-SERVER ARCHITECTURE

Three-Tier Client-Server Architecture

CATEGORIES OF DBMS

 Desktop databases:
 Desktop databases are oriented toward single-user
applications and reside on standard personal computers .
 Desktop databases offer an inexpensive , simple solution to
many less complex data storage and manipulation
requirements.
 Example: Microsoft Access, FoxPro, FileMaker Pro,
Paradox and Lotus Approach.
 CATEGORIES OF DBMS

 Server Databases
 Server databases contain mechanisms to ensure the reliability and
consistency of data and are geared toward multi-user applications.
 These databases are designed to run on high-performance servers.
 Example: Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle and IBM DB2.
BENEFIT OF DESKTOP DATABASES

 Benefit of Desktop Databases

 User-friendly :A user does not need to understand SQL in order to
use them. It usually offer an easy-to-navigate graphical user
interface.

 Offer web solutions. Provide web solutions so that the user can
publish data onto the web in various fashions.

 Lower cost. The cost is lower than server databases. Example : If

you own a copy of Microsoft Office Professional, you’re already a
licensed owner of Microsoft Access.
BENEFIT OF SERVER DATABASES

 Benefit of Server Databases

 Flexibility. APIs(Application Programmer Interface) are used for
rapid development of custom applications providing users with a
lot of flexibility.

 Powerful Performance. Server databases offer organizations the

ability to manage large amounts of data and many users.

 Security. All communication must go through the server, then the

setting permissions can be done at the server level. The
permissions determine who can access the database.
Database Users

 Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the
system
 Application programmers – interact with system through DML
calls
 Sophisticated users – form requests in a database query language
 Specialized users – write specialized database applications that do
not fit into the traditional data processing framework
 Naïve users – invoke one of the permanent application programs
that have been written previously
 E.g. people accessing database over the web, bank tellers, clerical staff
Database Administrator

 Coordinates all the activities of the database system; the database

administrator has a good understanding of the enterprise’s information
resources and needs.
 Database administrator's duties include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access method definition
 Schema and physical organization modification
 Granting user authority to access the database
 Specifying integrity constraints
 Acting as liaison with users
 Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements