Ad 04 Nav Aids 4

Navigational Aids for JE (ATC)
CATC/ATM/2019/BT-04
12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 1

Chapter - 1
Radio Wave Theory &

Radio Wave Propagation

COURSE OBJECTIVES
At the end of this handout, the trainee will be able to:

1. Describe radio waves, Radio wave propagation, Frequency bands,
Radio communication systems, Antennas and Shadowing.
2. Classify radio navigation aids in terms of range, accuracy and
error.
3. Explain the principle of operation, frequency of operation, range,
airborne equipment, services provided, advantages and
disadvantages of Non-Directional Beacon (NDB).
4. Describe the principle of operation, VOR Indicator, Scalloping,
advantages and disadvantages of Very high frequency Omni
Range (VOR) and list the advantages of DVOR over CVOR.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
5. Explain the principle of operation, Modes of operation, DME

Channels, Types and Applications of Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME).
6. Describe the ILS ground components and general layout of
Localizer, Glide Path, Markers, Locators and DME indicating the
advantages and disadvantages of ILS and demonstrate general
awareness of Satellite based precision approach & landing.
7. Explain the basic principles, Classification of Radar, Applications
of Radar and use of Radar in Air Traffic Control, Secondary
Surveillance Radar (SSR), TCAS/ACAS Operation, Extended
squitter and Mode S Surveillance (both Elementary and
Enhanced).
8. Outline briefly, the need of Future Air Navigation Systems and
benefits of new CNS/ATM system.

Radio Waves
 Radio waves are an invisible form of electromagnetic

radiation.
 The frequency of radio waves ranges from 3 kHz to

300 GHz.
 Radio waves travel at the speed of light in a free

space.
 They are most commonly used in mobile radio

communication, communication satellites,
navigation, radar and broadcasting.
 In earth’s environment radio waves propagate in

ways that depends on properties of both the
radio waves and that of the environment itself.
 The frequency used in radio waves plays a

significant role in the type of propagation.

 The type of radio propagation are:

o Free space propagation
o Ground wave propagation
o Sky wave (or Ionospheric) propagation
o Space wave propagation
o Tropospheric Scatter Propagation

Factors Affecting Wave
Propagation
 Some of the major factors which affect the
propagation of radio wave in the atmosphere
are:
o Absorption or attenuation in clear
atmosphere or in precipitation, which
generally has little or no effect on microwave
propagation
o Reflection from earth’s surface, which
enhances the radiated energy at some
elevation angles and decreases it at others.

Propagation
 Some of the major factors which affect the
propagation of radio wave in the atmosphere are
(Contd.):
o Refraction or bending, of the propagation
wave by the variation of the atmosphere’s
index of refraction as a function of altitude,
which can cause the radio energy to deviate
from straight line propagation.

Propagation
o Diffraction of radio waves by the earth’s
surface that causes energy to propagate
beyond the normal horizon. It implies mainly
of the lower frequencies used in radar
applications.

Frequency Bands
 To prevent interference between different users,

the artificial generation and use of radio waves is
strictly regulated by law, coordinated by an
international body called the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU).
 The radio spectrum is divided into a number of

radio bands on the basis of frequency, allocated
to different uses.
 These are called frequency bands.

Frequency Bands
Band Name Frequency Band
Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) 3Hz - 30 Hz
Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3 kHz - 30 kHz
Low Frequency (LF) 30 kHz - 300 kHz
Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz - 3 MHz
High Frequency (HF) 3 MHz - 30 MHz
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30 MHz – 300 MHz
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 GHz - 30 GHz
Extra High Frequency (EHF) 30 GHz - 300 GHz
Infrared Frequency 3 THz- 30 THz

Radio Communication
Systems
 The basic components of electronic
communication system are:
o A Transmitter is a collection of electronic
circuits designed to convert the information
into a signal suitable for transmission over a
given communication medium.
o The Communication channel is the medium
by which the electronic signal is transmitted
from the transmitter to the receiver.
o A Receiver is a collection of electronic circuits
designed to convert the signal back to the
original information.
Radio Communication
Systems
 Modulation is the process of superimposing the
information contents of a modulating signal on a
carrier signal (which is of high frequency) by
varying the characteristic of carrier signal
according to the modulating signal.
 Demodulation is the process of recovering the

signal intelligence from a modulated carrier
wave. This process also called detection is the
reverse process of modulation. In Demodulation,
the message content is retrieved from the
modulated high frequency carrier.
Antenna
 Antennas are essential components of all

equipment that uses radio.
 An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device

which converts electric power into radio waves,
and vice versa.
 It is usually used with a radio transmitter or

radio receiver.

Antenna
 Antennas demonstrate a property known as

reciprocity, which means that an antenna will
maintain the same characteristics regardless if it
is transmitting or receiving.
 In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an
electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e.
a high frequency alternating current (AC)) to the
antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates
the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves).

Antenna
 In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the

power of an electromagnetic wave in order to
produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is
applied to a receiver to be amplified.
 Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement

of metallic conductors (elements), electrically
connected (often through a transmission line) to
the receiver or transmitter.

Antenna
 Most antennas are resonant devices, which

operate efficiently over a relatively narrow
frequency band.
 An antenna must be tuned to the same

frequency band of the radio system to which it is
connected, otherwise the reception and the
transmission will be impaired.
 A graphical representation of the relative

distribution of the radiated power in space is
called a radiation pattern.
Antenna
 Characteristics of an antenna are:

o Bandwidth
o Directivity
o Radiation Pattern
o Gain
o Efficiency
o Effective area or aperture
o Polarization

Shadowing On RTF
Communications
 Shadowing is the effect that the received signal
power fluctuates due to objects obstructing the
propagation path between transmitter and
receiver.

ANY QUESTIONS

Chapter - 2
NAVIGATIONAL
AIDS

Introduction
 Navigation is the ‘ART’ of determining the

position of an aircraft over earth’s surface and
guiding its progress from one place to another.
 The radio navigational aids provide information

to a pilot regarding the position of the aircraft in
azimuth and/or elevation at any instance of
time.
 Radio communication and navigational aids

provide useful information to Air Traffic
Controller for effective control of air traffic.
Classification of Radio
Navigation Aids
 According to service range, the radio navigational
aids are broadly classified into three categories:
o Long range
o Medium range
o Short range

Navigation Aids
 Long Range Nav-Aids:
o Range from 700 kms to 7000 kms
o Frequency spectrum: 10 KHz, 50-100 KHz,
100-200 KHz, i.e. in low frequency (LF) and
very low frequency (VLF) band
o Example: omega, loran (long range aid to
navigation)
o AAI does not provide these aids
o Properly equipped aircraft can use these
facilities while flying over Indian air space

Navigation Aids
 Medium Range Nav-Aids:
o Range: 150- 200 nm, 350 nm over high seas
o Frequency spectrum: LF/MF
o Example: NDB (non directional beacon)
 Short Range Nav-Aids

o Range: less than 150 NM
o Frequency spectrum: VHF/UHF
o Coverage: Dependent on line-of-sight
phenomenon
o Example: VHF DF, VOR, ILS and RADARS

Navigation Aids
 According to use and frequency:
Short Range Aids

Name of the Power Range
System Frequency band
equipment (in watts) (NM)
NDB Locator 200 – 450 KHz <50 45
VOR Terminal VOR 108 – 112 MHz 13 25
Localizer ILS 108 – 112 MHz 10 25
Glide Path ILS 328 – 336 MHz 10 10
DME ILS - DME 960 – 1215 MHz 100 25

Navigation Aids
 According to use and frequency:
Medium Range Aids

Name of the Power Range
equipment
System Frequency band
(in watts) (NM)
Homing & 500 & 150 &
NDB 200 – 450 KHz
En-route >1KW >250
VHF D/F Homing 118 – 136 MHz -- 150
VOR Homing & 112 – 118 MHz 100 200

En-route
DME Homing & 960 – 1215 MHz 1KW 200
En-route

ANY QUESTIONS

Chapter - 3
Non- Directional Beacon

(NDB)

Introduction
 A non-directional beacon transmits non-

directional signals whereby a pilot of an aircraft
suitably equipped with a directional antenna and
receiver can determine his bearing to the ground
beacon and “home” on it.
 It is a low or medium frequency navigational aid.
 The direction finder equipment within the

aircraft is widely known as "RADIO COMPASS" or
ADF.

Principle of Operation
 The NDB is a ground base radio transmitter that

transmits the signal in all directions.
 It transmits modulated carrier frequency, which

is basically a ground wave propagation.
 The pilot tunes his ADF equipment to the NDB

frequency.
 The needle on the ADF gauge will point to the

NDB if it is in range and a signal is received.

Relative Bearing
 NDB Provides Relative Bearing to the Aircraft

 The ADF equipment consists of a movable needle

that point to the tuned NDB station.
 The gauge has a compass clock background

underneath the needle.

 From this the pilot can work out the heading he

has to fly to the NDB, can determine his relative
bearing from the ground NDB station and can
"HOME" on to it.
 The needle will either point to 12 O’clock if going
to the NDB or 6 O’clock if flying away from the
NDB.

Frequency of Operation
 NDB operates within a frequency range of 200-

450 KHz, whereas the radio compass can operate
between 200 KHz to 1700 KHz.
 The additional frequency range of receiver helps

the pilot to tune in to All India Radio Broadcast
band transmissions of a particular station in case
of NDB failure, to determine his bearing.

Frequency of Operation
 NDB radiates a continuous radio frequency along

with a 1020 Hz station identification tone.
 The identification tone is a keyed tone in the

form of a two or three letter international morse
code group and transmitted at a rate
corresponding to approximately 7 words per
minute.

Range
 The NDB transmitter power is selected to provide

the required minimum coverage and varies from
10 W to more than several kilowatts.
 Within the rated coverage area, the minimum

recommended field strength is 70µv/metre.

Range
 Thus NDBs can be classified as follows:

o Low power (10-50 W) with range of 45 NM
(Locator)
o Medium power (250-500 W) with range of
150 NM
o High power (1 KW-10 KW) with range of 250-
500 NM

Description of Airborne
Equipment
 ADF (Automatic Direction Finder), consists of the
following:
o Antenna system
o Receiver
o Display

Description of Airborne
Equipment
 ADF receives RF signals
from two antennas:
o Sense antenna,
which is omni
directional and
whose radiation
pattern is a circle.
o Loop antenna whose
radiation pattern is a
figure of eight.

Services Provided by NDB
 NDB can provide following services to the

aircraft:
o As an En-route Aid
o Position Fixing
o Holding
o Homing
o As an aid to final Approach
o Weather broadcast
o As a backup aid in case of VHF failure

Advantages & Disadvantages
of NDB
 Advantages:
o The NDB is a simpler equipment to handle
with less tuning and maintenance, as
compared to other Nav. aids.
o Quite economical in use.
o A simple airborne receiver is required to
sample its radiation.

of NDB
 Disadvantages:
o Bearing accuracy is around ±5° or more
(which is not desirable in high traffic density
routes)Quite economical in use.
o Bearing errors are caused by the interaction
of the normal ground waves and undesired
sky waves (especially during night operation,
as it is a LF/MF device).
o Bearing errors are caused by the ground
waves passing over rugged terrain or abrupt
discontinuities in ground surface e.g. land to
water or vice-versa.
of NDB
 Disadvantages:
o The coverage range improves in
monsoon/rainy seasons; but deteriorates in
summer due to changes in the conductivity of
the earth's surface.
o Bearing accuracy is around ±5° or more
(which is not desirable in high traffic density
routes)Quite economical in use.

of NDB
 Disadvantages:
o Bearing errors are caused by the ground
waves passing over rugged terrain or abrupt
discontinuities in ground surface e.g. land to
water or vice-versa.
o The coverage range improves in
monsoon/rainy seasons; but deteriorates in
summer due to changes in the conductivity of
the earth's surface.

Definitions Related to NDB
 ADF: Automatic Direction Finder. This is known

as Radio Compass. This is airborne equipment,
which gives the direction of NDB from aircraft
with reference to its heading.
 Relative Bearing: It is the angular relationship

between the aircraft heading and the station
measured clockwise from the nose of the
aircraft.

 Ground Wave: A wave propagated via the surface

of the earth. In the case of the NDB this wave is
vertically polarized.
 Night Effect: Bearing errors in an ADF system

caused by the interaction between the ground
wave and the sky wave. Reflection of the sky
wave from the ionosphere occurs mainly at
night.

 Rated Coverage: The area surrounding an NDB

within which the field strength of the vertically
polarized component of the ground wave
exceeds the minimum value specified for
geographical area in which the radio beacon is
situated. Within the rated coverage area, the
minimum recommended field strength is 70
microvolts per meter, except in latitude between
30 deg North and 30 deg South where 120
microvolt per meter, or in some cases even
higher is recommended.

 Magnetic Bearing: It is the direction of the object

from a reference point with respect to Magnetic
North.
 Cross bearing: A minimum of two NDBs is

necessary to establish a fix. It is standard practice
to use at least three when obtaining a fix, to
guard against the possibility of and, in some
cases, remove ambiguity. The use of two or more
NDBs to obtain a Position Fix is known as cross
bearing.

 Locator: A LF/ MF NDB (usually of Low Power)

used as an aid to final approach.

ANY QUESTIONS

Chapter - 4
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY

OMNI RANGE (VOR)

Principle of Conventional
VOR
 Operation of the CVOR is based on the phase
difference between two 30 Hz signals modulated
on the carrier, called the reference phase and the
variable phase.
 Aircraft determines it’s bearing by comparing

phase of reference 30 Hz and variable 30 Hz
signals.

VOR
 Reference 30 Hz signal has the same phase at all
the 360 degrees points around VOR whereas the
phase of variable 30 Hz changes at the rate of 1
degree for one degree deviation of azimuth
angle.
 The reference 30 Hz signal and variable 30 Hz

signal are in the same phase in the direction of
magnetic north. In fact this direction is taken as
zero degree for VOR and other azimuth angles
measured in clockwise direction.

VOR
 In CVOR the Reference & Variable signals are as
follows:
o Reference signal by FM: 30Hz sinusoidal signal
frequency modulates 9960Hz, this Sub carrier
modulation consists of a 9960 plus and minus
480 Hz at 30 Hz rate. This 9960 Hz sub-carrier
Amplitude Modulates on R F frequency of
VOR.

VOR
o Variable signal by AM: Variable 30 Hz signal is
obtained by technique known as space
modulation, which means the modulation is
not generated inside transmitter but it is
achieved by combination or R.F. signals in
space.

VOR
 Phase Relationship of CVOR Course Forming
Signals

Principle of Doppler VOR
 The DVOR concept is based on the 360° radials,

which originate from a transmitting station and
terminates on the airborne equipment, which
resolves the particular radial data from the
station.
 The resolved radial, called line-of-position (LOP)

is the displacement angle between magnetic
north and the aircraft, as measured from the
DVOR antenna.

 Therefore, regardless of its heading, an aircraft

which is on the 0° radial is north of the DVOR
station.
 There are separately radiated upper and lower

sideband frequencies, which are displaced ±9960
Hz from the carrier frequency .
 The reference phase signal is obtained by

amplitude modulating the carrier with a 30 Hz
sine wave signal.
 This amplitude- modulated signal is radiated

omni-directionally in the horizontal plane by the
central carrier antenna.
 The radiation pattern is a circle, and produces in

the aircraft receiver a 30 Hz signal with a phase
independent of azimuth.

 The variable phase signal is obtained from the

9960 Hz frequency modulated sub carrier which
amplitude modulates the carrier.
 This amplitude modulation of the carrier is often

referred to as the space modulation, since it is
obtained by adding in space the omni-
directionally radiated carrier and the separately
radiated upper and lower sideband signals
emanating from the ring of sideband antennas.

 In DVOR the Reference & Variable signals are as

follows:
o Reference signal is a result of AM on Carrier.
Its phase is constant throughout the azimuth.
o Variable signal is a result of FM (on sub-
carrier due to doppler effect). Its phase is
related to azimuth.
o The DVOR beacon also transmits VOICE and
IDENT CODE information to the aircraft.

o This information amplitude modulates the RF

carrier and is radiated omni- directionally
from the central antenna, along with the 30
Hz AM REFERENCE Signal.

 DVOR Phase Relationship between REF & VAR

signals

 RADIALS: The two signals

from VOR transmitter
generate 360 lines like spokes
in a wheel. Each line is called
a Radial. VOR navigation
equipment on the airplane
will determine which of those
360 radials the airplane is on.

Advantages of DVOR Over
CVOR
 The scalloping error in the course information
has been greatly reduced in DVOR. Maximum
scalloping error observed is only +/- 0.4%
whereas, in conventional VOR it is +/- 2.4%.
 The error due to the reflections in the variable

signal is almost negligible. This is due to the fact
that the variable signal obtained in the receiver
is the result of Frequency modulated sidebands
due to the Doppler effect. This ultimately results
in the error reduction in the Bearing information
in the airborne receiver.
Advantages of DVOR Over
CVOR
 Siting criteria for DVOR installation is very much
less critical than the conventional VOR but the
restricted area limitation (area proximity to the
VOR) is as same as the conventional VOR.

VOR Indicator

Advantages of VOR
 Accurate: Up to 1 degree (0.4 degree in case of

Doppler VOR)
 Reliable:
o Direct wave propagation
o Less interference
o Day, night same performance.
 Provide multiple number of routes

Advantages of VOR
 The VOR enables a pilot to select, identify, and

locate a line of position from a particular VOR
beacon.
 The following information can be obtained:

o The magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the
VOR beacon
o The position of the aircraft

Disadvantages of VOR
 The range of VOR signal is limited to ‘line of

sight’ reception.
 To cover a particular Air-route, a number of VOR

stations are required.
 A complicated and expensive receiver is required

‘on board’ an aircraft.

Disadvantages of VOR
 VOR airborne receiver is susceptible to

interference from FM radio, which operate in the
VHF frequency range.
 VOR equipment are costly to maintain.
 The VOR signals are affected by reflections at the

site causing ‘Course error due to ‘scalloping’.

Scalloping
 When the signals arrive at the VOR receiver by

two different paths (i.e. one directly and other
after reflection from the objects in the
neighborhood of the VOR station) they cause a
slow bend in the course being flown by the
aircraft in certain sectors at some definite
distance from VOR station.
 Because of this, the vertical needle of the CDI

display starts a rhythmic movement on both
sides and this phenomenon, as observed by the
pilots, is known as ‘scalloping’
ANY QUESTIONS

Chapter - 5
Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME)

Introduction
 DME, as the name indicates is an electronic

equipment used to measure slant range distance
between aircraft and a ground station.
 The DME operates in the UHF range between 960

MHz and 1215 MHz.
 It is used either as a navigation aid in conjunction

with very high frequency Omni range (VOR), or as
a component of the Instrument landing system
(ILS).

DME Principles
 The operating principle of DME systems is based

on the radar principle i.e., the time required for a
radio pulse signal to travel to a given point and
return.
 DME is in fact similar to Secondary Radar and

contains two components, viz. Interrogator &
Transponder, but with positions interchanged.

DME Principles
 The Interrogator radiates pulses which when

received by a corresponding transponder on a
target will initiate a reply from that transponder.
These replies are then collected by the
interrogator to extract information about the
targets.

DME Principles
 Basic Block Diagram of DME System

Modes of Operation
 There are two modes of aircraft interrogations,

called as Search and Track.
 The Search mode is automatically established

whenever the airborne equipment is tuned to a
new DME ground transponder, or if for some
reason, a major interruption in the replies
occurs.

Modes of Operation
 When the aircraft's transmitter is in search

mode, it transmits interrogations at a higher rate
(about 150 interrogations per second).
 When the aircraft receives at least 65% replies to

its interrogations, lock-on will be established and
the transmitter changes to the Track mode of
operation. This process may take up to 30
seconds.

Modes of Operation
 Only when this is achieved, the cockpit readout

of the DME range is turned on.
 In the Track mode the aircraft's interrogation rate

reduces considerably (about 30 interrogations
per second).

Modes of Operation
 The reduced interrogation rate of transmission in

the track mode will allow more aircraft to use
the DME station.
 While in Track mode, if the signal is lost

momentarily, the equipment enters Memory
state.

DME Channels
X Channels (n° 126) Y Channels (n° 126)

I=1025+(CH-1) I=1025+(CH-1)
R= I-63 1< CH< 63 R= I+63
R= I+63 64< CH< 126 R= I-63

Type of DME
 Low power DME:

o Used as a landing facility.
o It is co-located with Glide path.
o Its range is 25 NM.
o Power is 100W
 High Power DME:
o Used as homing and en-route facility.
o Co-located with VOR.
o Power is 1KW
o Its range is 200 NM.

Type of DME
 DME/N: Distance measuring equipment,

primarily serving operational needs of en-route
or TMA navigation, where the “N” stands for
narrow spectrum characteristics (to be
distinguished from “W”)
 DME/P: Distance measuring element of the MLS,

where the “P” stands for precise distance
measurement. The spectrum characteristics are
those of DME/N.

Type of DME
 DME/W: Distance measuring equipment,

primarily serving operational needs of en-route
or TMA navigation, where the “W” stands for
wide spectrum characteristics (to be
distinguished from “N”)

Applications of DME
 Provide continuous navigation fix (in conjunction

with VOR);
 For resolving traffic conflict;
 Permit distance separation instead of time

separation between aircraft occupying the same
altitude facilitating reduced separation thereby
increasing the aircraft handling capacity;

Applications of DME
 Expedite the radar identification of aircraft; and
 Provide DME distance in lieu of fan marker

beacons and radio range intersections in
connection with instrument approaches and
holding operations respectively.

ANY QUESTIONS

Chapter - 6
Instrument Landing
System (ILS)

Introduction
 The function of an Instrument Landing System

(ILS) is to provide ‘a highly accurate guidance
with high integrity’ to the pilot or autopilot of a
landing aircraft up to or along the surface of the
runway.
 One signal gives the information to the pilot

indicating the position of the aircraft relative to
extended CENTRE LINE of the runway (Azimuth
guidance).

Introduction
 Second signal gives the information indicating

the aircraft's position relative to the required
ANGLE OF DESCENT (elevation guidance).
 The third signal provides DISTANCE (Range) from

some specified point.

Ground Components &
General Layout
 An ILS comprises the following components:
o Localizer (for azimuth guidance)
o Glide Path (for elevation guidance)
o Markers (for range information), or
o LP-DME (co-located with Glide Path for range
information)

Ground Components &
General Layout

Ground Components &
General Layout

Localizer
 Provides extended center line of runway

 Up to at least 25 NM from threshold point of
runway within 10 degree on either side of center
line.
 And up to 17 NM within 35 degree on either side
of center line.

Localizer
 Radiation Pattern of Localizer Antenna Array

Glide Path
 The glide path transmits a radio signal which

establishes a glide angle along the approach
course defined by localizer.
 Vertical deflection of the needle in the CDI tells

pilot that the aircraft is on, above or below the
glide angle.
 Frequency range of operation of glide path is in

UHF band from 328 MHz to 336 MHz

Glide Path
 The glide path have an azimuth coverage of 8

degree on either side of the extended center-line
of the instrument runway in the direction of
approach.
 In the vertical plane coverage is guaranteed up to

an elevation angle of approximately twice the
published angle of approach.
 The assured range of the facility is 10 NM from

the threshold even though proper signals may be
available for longer distances
Glide Path
 Glide Path Azimuthal Coverage Cat-I & II

Glide Path
 Glide Path Elevation Coverage Cat-I & II

Glide Path
 Radiation pattern of Glide path

Markers
 Markers, operating on 75 MHz, are provided

along the approach path.
 Outer Marker is located approximately 3.5 to 6

NM from the threshold.(Usually 3.9 NM)
 Middle Marker is located approximately at a

distance of 3500 feet from the threshold.
 Inner Marker is located approximately 1000 feet

away from threshold.(Inner marker is seldom
used)
Markers
Marker Visual Indication Audio
Outer Purple __
Middle Amber _.
Inner White ..

Locators
 The outer/middle locators are low powered

NDBs and are designed to have a range of only
25 NM around facility and co-located with the 75
MHz markers.
 These locators are intended for providing

additional guidance information for aircraft
beginning an ILS approach, holding and missed
approaches.

Co-located LP-DME
 DME, where installed is co-located with Glide

Path and adjusted to give continuous distance
information from the touch-down on suitably
equipped aircraft.
 The frequency of the DME and coding of DME are

paired with that of ILS.

 It is a precision approach aid and helps the pilot

in making an approach to land during adverse
weather conditions.
 However ILS does not provide multiple approach

path.

Satellite Based Precision
Approach & Landing

Approach & Landing
 GBAS stands for Ground Based Augmentation
System.
 A GLS or GBAS Landing System is a GNSS-

dependent alternative to ILS which uses a single
GBAS airport ground station to transmit
corrected GNSS data to suitably-equipped
aircraft to enable them to fly a precision
approach with much greater flexibility.

Approach & Landing
 From a pilot perspective, the flight deck display is
driven by GBAS avionics incorporated in the
Multi-Mode Receiver (MMR) and is the same as
for ILS, so no additional training is required.

Approach & Landing
 The only significant difference between an ILS
and a GLS approach for the pilot is that they
select a five digit Channel Number rather than an
ILS radio frequency.
 Pilot confirmation that the correct GLS procedure

has been loaded is achieved by cross checking
the charted Reference Path Indicator (RPI) or
approach ID with the flight-deck displayed RPI or
(in some cases) audio identification of the RPI by
Morse code.

Approach & Landing
 The number of simultaneous precision approaches
which can be supported by current generation
GBAS base stations and their associated VDB (VHF
frequency broadcast) ranges from 26 up to 48.
 If two airports are in close proximity, it is possible

to serve both the airports from the same GBAS
base station.
 ICAO requirements for GLS Cat I are contained in

ICAO Annex 10 Volume 1; corresponding
procedures for GLS Cat II/III are being developed.
ANY QUESTIONS

Chapter - 7
RADAR

Introduction
 The word RADAR is an acronym of Radio

Detection And Ranging.
 RADAR is basically a means of gathering

information about distant objects called 'targets'
by sending electromagnetic waves at them and
analyzing the returns called the 'echoes'.

Radar Overview
 Radar operates by radiating electromagnetic

energy and detecting the echo returned from
reflecting objects (targets).
 The basic concept of radar is relatively simple
even though in many instances its practical
implementation is not.

How do we get target information
from the echo signal?
Target information Echo signal

Distance to the target Time it takes to travel to the
target and back
Angle of arrival of the echo
Angular location signal to the directive
antenna
To distinguish a moving Shift in frequency of the
target from stationary echo signal due to doppler
one effect

Classification of RADARs
 Based on Role of Targets, the RADARs are

classified as:
 Primary Radar:
o The cooperation of the target is not required
to find the range, position, relative velocity of
the target.
o The role of the target is passive, limited only
to reflect the Radar signals back.

Classification of RADARs
 Based on Role of Targets, the RADARs are classified as:
 Secondary Radar:
o The active cooperation of the target is required to
find the range and other details of the target.
o The role of the target is active.
o The ground based Interrogator radiates coded
pulses and the target’s Transponder on reception of
these pulses, initiates reply.

Primary v/s Secondary
Primary Secondary
It works independently, without the It can be used only with friendly targets
cooperation of the target and active cooperation is required
It engages several targets simultaneously All secondary Radars are likely to be

and is not likely to get saturated saturated
Poor efficiency as the echo signals depend Echo is no longer dependent on target size
on the target size, material etc.. or material.
The transmitter power has to be very high. It allows low powers to be used to get a
The receiver has to be highly sensitive given performance. The receiver
sensitivity required also much less.
Unwanted reflections from terrain and Free from permanent targets due to
buildings create problems in the detection difference in the transmission and
process reception frequencies.
The selective response of target is not The selective response of target is

possible possible

PSR – Presence of Targets
Information Obtained: Range and Azimuth

SSR – Identification &
Altitude Information
1245 2413
1234
1234
Information Obtained:
1. Range and Azimuth
2. Aircraft Identity
3. Flight Level
Mode S – Selective
Addressing
A00023
Information Obtained:
1. Range and Azimuth
2. Aircraft Identity
3. Flight Level
4. Data Communication
Radar Frequency Bands
Band Letter Frequency Range Typical Radar
UHF 300-1000 MHz Ground penetrating RADAR

L 1.0 to 2.0 GHz ARSR
S 2.0 to 4.0 GHz ASR
C 4.0 to 8.0 GHz Weather
X 8.0 to 12 GHz PAR
K 37.5 ASMI, SMR
ARSR – Air Route Surveillance Radar

ASR – Airport Surveillance Radar
PAR – Precision Approach Radar
ASMGCS – Airport Surface Movement Guidance Control System
SSR – Interrogator frequency – 1030 MHz
- Transponder frequency – 1090 MHz
Applications of RADAR
 Air Traffic Control

 Aircraft Navigation
 Maritime Navigation
 Military Applications
 Meteorological Applications
 Space Applications
 Law Enforcement Applications

Radars Used In Air Traffic Control
 Aerodrome Surface Control

 Airport/Approach Surveillance Radar
 Precision Approach Radar
 Air Route Surveillance Radar
 Secondary Surveillance Radar

SSR Operation
TRANSPONDER
Receiver Transmitter
1030 1090
Modes - Interrogations
Mode A
Mode C Codes - Replies
Identity - 1234
Altitude- 300
Transmitter Receiver
1030 1090
INTERROGATOR

Different Modes of
Interrogation
The SSR interrogation, consisting of two pulses (P1 and P3) of
0.8 µs width which are separated by a certain time - this
determines the mode of interrogation. The table shows the time
spacing of the different military and civil modes and indicates their
use.
MODE Spacing (Micro Sec) Used in
1 3 Military
2 5 Military
3 8 Military-Identification
A 8 Civil-Identification and Tracking
B 17 Civil – reserved for future
C 21 Civil – Altitude
D 25 Civil – reserved for future

Service Type Availability
Ground Station
Transponder
Mode A/C Mode S
Mode A/C Mode A/C Mode A/C

Service Service
Mode S Mode A/C Mode S Service
Service

SSR Mode A/C Interrogation

What Do We Get From Mode
A/C Reply?
 Aircraft Identity in four digit octal code.
 The SPI to validate the aircraft identification.
 The Pressure altitude, encoded with 100 ft.
resolution.
 Emergency conditions from the special purpose
Mode A codes,
o 7700 Emergency
o 7600 Radio failure
o 7500 Hijack

Problems With Side Lobe
Radiation
- Interference at the aircraft 1
receiver due to aircraft 3
unwanted replies
- Ring effect on target
display.
e
b
lo
ain
m
P1
ground e l obe
si d
INTERFERENCE!!! station
aircraft 2

Side Lobe Suppression
- The control pulse P2 is
aircraft 1
transmitted for side lobe
suppression aircraft 3
- Reply when P1 > P2 by
9dB
- Do not reply if P1 < P2
e
b
lo
ain
m
P1
e l obe
A1 si d
P1 P2
A2 P2 aircraft 2
A3
P1 P2

Improved Interrogator Side
Lobe Suppression
- Used to suppress replies aircraft 1
from reflected main lobe
signal aircraft 3
- The P1 and P2 are

transmitted for side lobe
suppression when the
beam comes at the specific
e
b
lo
angle.
ain
m
Reflector
P1
e l obe
si d
A1
P1 P2
P1 and/or P2
A2 aircraft 2
P1 P2

Improvements to SSR – Mode
S
 In Mode Select, unique 24 bit address is allotted
for each aircraft. (therefore 16,777,216 possible
codes compared to 4096 in Mode A)
 Increase in data integrity by the use of a parity
check mechanism.
 Coding of altitude data in 25-ft increments (till
now: 100-ft).
 Provide communication services between
controller and pilot.

Interoperability
 Mode S is compatible with existing SSR Modes

 A new transponder will be required on board, but
it will operate in Mode A, Mode C as well Mode S.
Mode A/C
ground
station

ANY QUESTIONS


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Navigational Aids for JE (ATC)

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 1

Radio Wave Theory &

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 2

At the end of this handout, the trainee will be able to:

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 3

5. Explain the principle of operation, Modes of operation, DME

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 4

 Radio waves are an invisible form of electromagnetic

 The frequency of radio waves ranges from 3 kHz to

 Radio waves travel at the speed of light in a free

 They are most commonly used in mobile radio

 In earth’s environment radio waves propagate in

 The frequency used in radio waves plays a

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 6

 The type of radio propagation are:

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 7

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 8

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 9

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 10

 To prevent interference between different users,

 The radio spectrum is divided into a number of

 These are called frequency bands.

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 11

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 12

 Demodulation is the process of recovering the

 Antennas are essential components of all

 An antenna (or aerial) is an electrical device

 It is usually used with a radio transmitter or

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 15

 Antennas demonstrate a property known as

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 16

 In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the

 Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 17

 Most antennas are resonant devices, which

 An antenna must be tuned to the same

 A graphical representation of the relative

 Characteristics of an antenna are:

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 19

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 20

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 21

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 22

 Navigation is the ‘ART’ of determining the

 The radio navigational aids provide information

 Radio communication and navigational aids

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 24

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 25

 Short Range Nav-Aids

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 26

Short Range Aids

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 27

Medium Range Aids

VOR Homing & 112 – 118 MHz 100 200

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 28

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 29

Non- Directional Beacon

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 30

 A non-directional beacon transmits non-

 It is a low or medium frequency navigational aid.

 The direction finder equipment within the

12-09-2019 CATC ALLAHABAD Navigational Aids 31