Chapter 4

Tissue Level of Organization

Tissues are…
• Groups of similar cells and extracellular products that carry out a
common function
• providing protection
• facilitating body movement
• Study of tissues is histology
4 primary types of tissues in the body
• epithelial
today
• connective
• muscle
later, dude
• nervous
Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue covers or lines every body surface and body cavity
• Epithelium is composed of one or more layers of closely packed cells
between two compartments
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
1. Cellularity: composed almost entirely of cells (with some
extracellular matrix and sometimes other structures)
Characteristics of Apical (free) surface
Epithelium
Epithelial Tissue Lateral
surface Basement
2. Polarity: has specific top and membrane
bottom Basal
• apical surface exposed to surface Connective
external environment or tissue
internal body space, and
Blood
• basal surface attached to
vessel
underlying connective tissue,
plus
• lateral surfaces connected by
intercellular junctions
(a) Epithelium–connective tissue junction
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue
4. Attachment: basal surface bound to basement membrane
5. Avascularity: no blood vessels; receive nutrients across apical
surface or by diffusion
6. Innervation: lots of nerve endings
7. High regeneration capacity: epithelial cells are frequently damaged
or lost to abrasion, so they are replaced quickly
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
• Physical protection: protect exposed and internal surfaces from
dehydration, abrasion, destruction
• Selective permeability: act as gatekeepers to let some substances in
and keep others out
• Sensation: sense changes in the environment
• Some also do secretion: contain glands that release sweat, scents,
hormones, etc.
Specialized structures Epithelium
of Epithelial Tissue Basement
membrane
• Basement layer is Basal
extracellular layer between surface Connective
epithelium and connective tissue
tissue
• often visible with microscope

(a) Epithelium–connective tissue junction

Fig. 4.1

Specialized structures
of Epithelial Tissue
• In some epithelial tissue, basal
cells anchored to basement
membrane with junctions
called hemidesmosomes
Hemidesmosome
Fig. 4.1

Intercellular Junctions
• Junctions between cells in
epithelium
• Tight junctions anchor cells to
each other Tight
junction
• prevents substances from passing
between cells
• materials must move through
cells, or are blocked from moving
past cells
• found in intestinal lining
Fig. 4.1

Intercellular Junctions
• Adhering junctions often deep to
tight junctions
• Form all the way around a cell
• Support apical surface
• Allows passage between cells Adhering
below apical surface junction
Cell-Cell Attachment
• Desmosomes attach cells to each other
• Bind epithelium together
• Bind muscle cells
• Resist shear forces
 Cell Cell Cytosol
Cell-Cell Communicating 1 2
Channel proteins
Attachment
Intercellular space
• Gap junctions tunnel between two Cell membrane
plasma membranes
• Found in muscles
• Enables sharing of ions and proteins Gap junctions are
communicating junctions.
• Enables fast communication between cells

Clusters of gap
junctions

Freeze fracture of cell membrane

Classifications of Apical surface

Epithelial Tissue Lateral surface

Basement Basal surface
• Number of cell layers membrane Simple epithelium
• simple = one cell layer thick
Apical surface
• stratified = >2 cell layers thick

Lateral
surface

Basement Basal surface

membrane Stratified epithelium
Classifications of Nucleus

Epithelial Tissue Squamous cell

Nucleus
• Cell shape
• squamous = flattened Cuboidal cell
• cuboidal = basically cube-shaped or roundish
• columnar = long and thin (like a column)
Nucleus

Columnar cell
Table 4.3a-1

Kidney tubules

Amnion

Simple
squamous cell

Simple
cuboidal
cell

LM 1000x

LM 400x

Simple cuboidal
Simple squamous
epithelium
epithelium
Table 4.3b-2
Mucosa of small
intestine Uterine tube

Cilia

Nonciliated Simple
simple columnar
columnar cell epithelial
cell

LM 100x
LM 400x

Nonciliated simple Ciliated simple columnar

columnar epithelium epithelium
Table 4.4a-1

Vagina
Epidermis of skin

Squamous epithelial
cell
Keratinized stratified
squamous epithelial cells
Nonkeratinized
stratified
squamous epithelium Living stratified
squamous epithelial cells

LM 125x LM 100x
Table 4.4b-1
Duct of sweat gland Male urethra

Columnar cell
LM100x

Cuboidal cell

Stratified cuboidal Stratified

epithelium columnar
epithelium
Table 4.5a
Nasal cavity lining

• Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium looks stratified, but is
Cilia
actually one layer of cells
Pseudostratified • all cells in contact with basement
ciliated columnar membrane
epithelium
• stratified look because nuclei are at
Columnar cell different levels in cells
Basal cell • may be ciliated or nonciliated
Table 4.5b

• Transitional epithelium is made of Urinary bladder lining

cells that can stretch

• cells look cuboidal when relaxed; look
Binucleated
squamous when stretched epithelial cell
Transitional
• found in lining of urinary bladder epithelium
(relaxed)
Connective tissue
• Supports, protects, and binds organs
• Includes tendons and ligaments, body fat, cartilage, skeleton, blood
Connective tissue
• Contains
• specific types of cells
• protein fibers
form extracellular matrix (stuff
• ground substance outside and around cells,
• nonliving material of protein and carbohydrate molecules produced by cells)
• Each type of connective tissue has a specific function
• Develops from mesenchyme
• type of stem cell from which all other connective tissues arise
• first arises in developing embryo
Fig. 4.7

Ground
substance

Elastic fibers
Extracellular
matrix
Collagen fibers Protein
fibers
Reticular fibers
Mesenchymal cell
Blood vessel
Macrophage
Adipocyte (fat cell)
Fibroblast
Loose connective tissue
• Fewer cells and protein fibers than dense connective tissue
• protein fibers loosely connected
 Table 4.9a-1

Areolar connective tissue Papillary layer of dermis

• Provides cushioning to overlying tissues

• Fibroblasts are most visible cells Elastic fiber
• cells with tapered ends
• produce fibers and ground substance Fibroblast
Collagen fiber
• Has collagen fibers
• fibers of protein collagen
• strong, flexible, resistant to stretching Ground
substance
• Has elastic fibers
• fibers of protein elastin (thinner than collagen) LM 240x

• stretch and recoil easily

Table 4.9a-2

Adipose connective tissue

Subcutaneous layer
(hypodermis)

• AKA “fat”
• contains large cells filled with a droplet of
lipid Adipocyte
• nucleus pushed to the side Blood
Adipocyte vessel
• cushions structures from shocks nucleus

• acts as insulation
• storage of energy for the body LM 250x

LM 200x
• adipocytes can’t divide, but mesenchyme
can make more if needed
Dense connective tissue
• Primarily protein fibers
• lots of collagen fibers
• Less ground substance than loose connective tissue
• 3 types:
• dense regular
• tendons
• dense irregular
• reticular layer of dermis
• elastic
• wall of aorta
Table 4.10a-1
Dense, regular Tendon

connective tissue
• Found in tendons and ligaments
Ground
• Collagen fibers packed tightly, substance
arranged in parallel to force
applied
• Few blood vessels Collagen
fibers

Fibroblast
nucleus
LM 250x
 Table 4.10a-2

Dense, irregular Reticular layer

connective tissue of dermis

• Collagen fibers arranged in clumps Collagen fiber bundles

and bunches
• scattered throughout tissue
Fibroblast nucleus
• Withstands stress in all directions
• Found around cartilage and bone
Ground substance
• Forms capsule around some
internal organs LM 200x
Table 4.10b-1 Aorta wall

Elastic connective tissue

Ground substance
• Branching elastic fibers
• provide resilience and ability to Fibroblast nucleus
return to shape after being
deformed Elastic fibers
• Lots of fibroblasts
• Collagen fibers packed close