Lecture 5: Diffraction & Applications

Content

Multiple-slit Interference formula
 Diffraction Gratings
 Optical Spectroscopy
 Spectral Resolution

Single-Slit Diffraction

Interference + Diffraction
 Applications: X-ray Crystallography
General properties of N-Slit Interference
9I
9 1 16I1
16 25I
25 1
N=3 N=4 N=5
20
10
g(Ix) 5 h(I
h5( I
x)
x)
10

00 0 0
   0 0
10 0  10 10 0  10  10 0  10 
10d 
x d 10  10d 
x d 10  d 10 
10d 
x

• The positions of the principal maxima of the intensity patterns always

occur at  = 0, 2, 4 is the phase between adjacent
slits]i.e., dsin = m, m = 0, 1, 2,….

• The principal maxima become taller and narrower as N increases.

• The intensity of a principal maximum is equal to N2 times the maximum

intensity from one slit. The width of a principal maximum goes as 1/N.

• The # of zeroes between adjacent principal maxima is equal to N-1.

The # of secondary maxima between adjacent principal maxima is N-2.
 exercise 1
Light interfering from 10 equally spaced slits initially illuminates a
screen. Now we double the number of slits, keeping the spacing
constant.

What happens to the net power on the screen?

a. stays the same b. doubles c. increases by 4
 exercise 1
Light interfering from 10 equally spaced slits initially illuminates a
screen. Now we double the number of slits, keeping the spacing
constant.

What happens to the net power on the screen?

a. stays the same b. doubles c. increases by 4

If we double the number of slits, we expect the net

power on the screen to double. How does it do this…

The location and number of the principle maxima (which
have most of the power) does not change.
The principle maxima become 4x brighter.


But they also become only half as wide.




Therefore, the net power (integrating over all the peaks)
increases two-fold, as we would expect.

We will soon see that we often use such an array of slits (also
called a “diffraction grating”) to perform very precise
metrology, e.g, spectroscopy, crystallography, etc.
 N-Slit Interference – Summary

The Intensity for N equally spaced slits is given by:

2 *
 sin( N / 2 ) 
I N  I1  
 sin( / 2 ) 
y

d
 As usual, to determine the pattern at the screen
(detector plane), we need to relate  to  or y = Ltan:

  d sin d   y **
   and   L
2    L

 is the phase difference between adjacent slits.

* Note: we can not be able to use the small angle approximations if d ~ 

 Optical spectroscopy – how we know
about the world

•Quantum mechanics  definite energy levels, e.g.,

of electrons in atoms or molecules.
•When an atom transitions between energy levels 
emits light of a very particular frequency.
•Every substance has it’s own “signature” of what
colors it can emit.
•By measuring the colors, we can determine the
substance, as well as things about it’s surroundings
(e.g., temperature, magnetic fields), whether it’s
moving (via the Doppler effect), etc.

Optical spectroscopy is invaluable in materials

research, engineering, chemistry, biology, medicine…

But how do we precisely measure

 Interference Gratings
-- the basis for optical spectroscopy
Interference gratings (usually called Diffraction gratings)
allow us to resolve sharp spectral signals.

IN = N2I1

N-slit Interference:


0 dsin 

Shift of
the peak:


0 dsin
 Diffraction Gratings (1)

Diffraction gratings rely on N-slit interference.

They simply consist of a large number of evenly spaced parallel slits.

Recall that the intensity pattern produced by light of wavelength 
passing through N slits with spacing d is given by:

2
 sin( N  / 2 ) 
25I
25 1
N=5 I N  I1   y
20
 sin( / 2 ) 
d 
h5( I
x) where:
10

d sin 
0    2
0
10 0  10 
10 x 10
L
Consider very narrow slits (a << d), so I1 is roughly constant.

The position of the first principal maximum is given by sin  = /d
(can’t assume small !)  Different colors  different angles.
 Width of the principal maximum varies as 1/N – improves ability to
resolve closely spaced lines. Slits Demo
500/550 nm
 Diffraction Gratings (2)

How effective are diffraction gratings at resolving light
of different wavelengths (i.e. separating closely-spaced
‘spectral lines’)?

Concrete example: Na lamp has a spectrum with two yellow “lines”
very close together: 1 = 589.0 nm, 2 = 589.6 nm (nm)
 Are these two lines distinguishable using a particular grating?

I N = N 2 I1


0 dsin 


0 dsin 
 Diffraction Gratings (3)

We assume “Rayleigh’s criterion”: the minimum wavelength separation
we can resolve min  2-1 occurs when the maximum of 2 overlaps
with the first diffraction minimum of 1. (min=/Nd)

I N = N 2 I1 min

0 /Nd d sin 

 
sin     
d d
min 
   min   d 
d Nd
“Rayleigh Criterion”

N = number of illuminated   m in 1 Larger N Smaller min


lines in grating.  N (Higher spectral resolution)
 Diffraction Gratings (4)
 We can squeeze more resolution out of a given grating by working
in “higher order”. Remember, the principal maxima occur at
sin = m/d, where m = 1,2,3… designates the “order”.
(min≈ /Nd still*) You can easily show:
  m in 1

 Nm
First order Second order Third order
m = 1 m = 2 m = 3

0 /d 2/d 3/d sin


Larger Nm Smaller min
(Higher spectral resolution)

* To be precise: min= /(Nd cos), (but / = 1/Nm is correct.)

 Exercise 1: Diffraction Gratings

Angular splitting of the Sodium doublet:

Consider the two closely spaced spectral (yellow) lines of sodium

(Na), 1 = 589 nm and 2 = 589.6 nm.If light from a sodium
lamp fully illuminates a diffraction grating with 4000 slits/cm,
what is the angular separation of these two lines in the second-
order (m=2) spectrum?
Hint: First find the slit spacing d from the number of slits per
centimeter.
 Exercise 1: Solution
 Angular splitting of the Sodium doublet:

Consider the two closely spaced spectral (yellow) lines of sodium (Na), 1 = 589 nm and 2 = 589.6 nm, mentioned
earlier.If light from a sodium lamp illuminates a diffraction grating with 4000 slits/cm, what is the angular
separation of these two lines in the second-order (m=2) spectrum?

Hint: First find the slit spacing d from the number of slits per
centimeter.
1 cm
d  2.5  10  4 cm  2.5  m
4000
  
 1  sin  1  m 1  = 28.112 
 d 
1  2  1  1 
   sin  m   sin  m   0.031 
 d   d 
 Exercise 2
1. Assuming we fully illuminate the grating from the previous
problem (d = 2.5 m), how big must it be to resolve the Na
lines (589 nm, 589.6 nm)?
(a) 0.13 mm (b) 1.3 mm (c) 13 mm

2. How many interference orders can be seen with this grating?

(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4

3. Which reduces the maximum number of interference orders?

(a) Increase wavelength
(b) Increase slit spacing
(c) Increase number of slits
 exercise 2
1. Assuming we fully illuminate the grating from the previous
problem (d = 2.5 m), how big must it be to resolve the Na
lines (589 nm, 589.6 nm)?
(a) 0.13 mm (b) 1.3 mm (c) 13 mm

We need enough lines to narrow the diffraction peak:

 589nm size = N d
 1 N   491
 m   2 (0.6nm )  490 (2.5
 Nm m)
2. How many interference orders can be seen with this  1.2 mm
grating?
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4
The diffraction angle can never be more than 90˚: From sin = m/d,
it must be that m ≤ d, or m ≤ d/ = 2.5 m/0.589m = 4.2  m = 4
3. Which reduces the maximum number of interference orders?
(a) Increase wavelength Increase , or decrease d.
(b) Increase slit spacing Changing the number of slits does
not affect the number of orders.
(c) Increase number of slits
 Single-slit “Diffraction” Laser Demo simulation

 So far in the N-slit problem we have assumed that each slit is a point
source.
 Point sources radiate equally in all directions.

 Real slits have a non-zero extent – - a “slit width” a. The transmission

pattern depends on the ratio of a to .

 In general, the smaller the slit width, the more the wave will diffract!

Small slit: Diffraction Large slit: Diffraction

profile profile

Laser Light
Laser Light
(wavelength )
(wavelength )
I1 I1
screen screen
Let’s examine this effect quantitatively.
 Single-Slit Diffraction P

Slit of width a. Where are the minima?
The first minimum is at an angle such that the light from the top and the
Incident Wave


middle of the slit destructively interfere:

(wavelength ) y

 The second minimum is at an angle such that the light from the top and a

a
point at a/4 destructively interfere:
 a 
  sin  min 
 2 2
a/2

  sin  min  L
a

a  Location of nth-minimum:
   sin  min,2 
a/4 4 2 n
sin  min, n  (n = 1, 2, …)
2 a
  sin  min,2 
a
 Diffraction: Exercise 3
Suppose that when we pass red light ( = 600 nm) through a slit of
width a, the width of the spot (the distance between the first zeros
on each side of the bright peak) is W = 1 cm on a screen that is L = 2m
behind the slit. How wide is the slit?

a 1 cm = W

2m
Exercise 3: solution
Suppose that when we pass red light ( = 600 nm) through a slit of
width a, the width of the spot (the distance between the first zeros
on each side of the bright peak) is W = 1 cm on a screen that is L = 2m
behind the slit. How wide is the slit?

a
 1 cm = W

L=2m

Solution:
The angle to the first zero is:  = ± /a

W = 2 Ltan L2L/a (use tan 

Solve for a: a = 2L/W = (4m)(610-7 m) /(10-2m)

= 2.410-4 m = 0.24 mm
 Exercise
4
a 1 cm = W

2m
Which of the following would broaden the diffraction peak?

a. reduce the laser wavelength

b. reduce the slit width

c. move the screen further away

 Exercise 4:
solution
a 1 cm = W

2m
Which of the following would broaden the diffraction peak?

a. reduce the laser wavelength

b. reduce the slit width

c. move the screen further away

 Exercise
5
Light of wavelength  is incident on an N-slit
Imax
9

system with slit width a and slit spacing d.

intensity ( x) 5
I
1. The intensity I as a function of y at a viewing
screen located a distance L from the slits is 0
0
shown to the right. What is N? (L >> d, y, a)  0 
18.84
Y (cm)
x 18.84

(a) N= 2 (b) N = 3 (c) N =4

 Exercise 5:
solution
Light of wavelength  is incident on an N-slit
Imax
9

system with slit width a and slit spacing d.

intensity ( x) 5
I
1. The intensity I as a function of y at a viewing
screen located a distance L from the slits is
0
shown to the right. What is N? (L >> d, y, a) 0
 0 
18.84
Y (cm)
x 18.84

(a) N= 2 (b) N = 3 (c) N =4

 Diffraction from Crystals (1)
 Diffraction gratings are excellent tools for studying visible light because the
slit spacing is on the order of the wavelength of the light (~ few tenths of
microns)

 Visible light is a very small part of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves.

How can we study e-m waves with smaller wavelengths (e.g., x-rays with  ~ 10-10
m)?
 We can’t use a standard diffraction grating to do this. Why?
Calculate for first order peak for x-rays with = 10-10 m for a grating with
d=1000 nm

 = /d = 10-4 = 0.1 mrad

The first-order peak is too close to the central maximum to be measured!

 Diffraction from Crystals (2)
 Solution? We need a “diffraction” grating with a spacing d
that is on the order of the wavelength of e-m waves we’d
like to measure - i.e., for x-rays: ~10-10m
 Where do we find such a “grating”? Nature to the
rescue!!!
Crystalline solids (having regularly spaced atoms with d ~
10-10m) naturally occur.
a0
X-rays Diffraction: A Primer
 Illuminate crystal with x-rays.
 The X-rays are scattered by the ions.
 Enhanced scattering at certain scattering
a0 angles reveal constructive interference
between the scattered waves from
ion different regularly-spaced planes of atoms.
a0

 Modern Use: use x-rays to study crystal structure, e.g., DNA

 X-ray Diffraction for Crystallography (FYI)

If we know about the grating, we can use the diffraction pattern to learn about the light source.

If instead we know about the source, we can use the diffraction pattern to learn about the “grating”.

For this to work, we need to have a source wavelength that is less than the grating spacing
(otherwise, there are no orders of diffraction).

Crystals consist of regularly spaced atoms  regular array of scattering centers. Typical lattice
spacing is 5 angstroms = 5 x 10-10 m = 0.5 nm.
 use x-rays!

Bragg Law for

constructive
interference:
2d sin = m
d = lattice spacing
 = x-ray angle (with
respect to plane of
crystal)
 = x-ray wavelength