IT System Models

Introduction
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A model is a representation of a real or a planned

system.
The use of models makes it easier for the analyst to
visualize relationships in the system under study.
In other words, a model presents a simplified
version of something.
It may be as simple as a drawing of house plans, or
As complicated as a miniature (small) but
functional representation of a complex piece of
machinery
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 Introduction
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A model airplane may be assembled and glued

together from a kit by a child, or
It actually may contain an engine and a rotating
propeller that allows it to fly like a real airplane.

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 System Models
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System: derived from Greek word Systema,

meaning an organized relationship between any set
of components to achieve a common cause or
objective.
A system: “An orderly grouping of interdependent
components linked together according to a plan to
achieve a specific goal.”
Constraints/Characteristics of a System
A system must have three basic constraints:
1. A system must have some structure and behavior
designed to achieve a predefined objective.
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 System Models…
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2. Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist

among the system components.
3. The objectives of the organization have a higher
priority than the objectives of its subsystems.
4. Inputs for a system involve elements that enter the
system to be processed. They include raw materials,
energy, data, information and human efforts.
5. Process: the process of transformation through
which inputs are converted into outputs, for
instance, manufacturing process, data calculation
etc.
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 System Models…
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6. Output: They are the result of the transformation

process, like human services, finished products,
etc.
 For example, traffic management system, payroll
system, automatic library system, human
resources information system.
 System can be defined as a group of interrelated
or interacting elements forming a unified whole.
 It may be either physical or abstract.

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 Properties of a System
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Organization: Organization implies structure and

order.
 It is the arrangement of components that helps to
achieve predetermined objectives.
Interaction: It is defined by the manner in which
the components operate with each other.
 For example, in an organization, purchasing
department must interact with production
department and payroll with personnel
department.
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 Properties of a System…
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Interdependence: how the components of a

system depend on one another.
 For proper functioning, the components are
coordinated and linked together according to a
specified plan.
 The output of one subsystem might be required by
other subsystem as input.
Integration: concerned with how a system
components are connected together.
 The parts of the system work together even if each
part performs a unique function. 10/13/22
 Types of Systems
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Physical or Abstract Systems

Physical systems are tangible entities.
 We can touch and feel them.
 Physical System may be static or dynamic in
nature.
 For example, desks and chairs are the physical
parts of computer center which are static.
 A programmed computer is a dynamic system in
which programs, data, and applications can change
according to the user's needs.
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 Types of Systems…
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Abstract systems are non-physical entities or

conceptual that may be formulas, representation or
model of a real system.
An abstract system is an orderly arrangement of
interdependent ideas or contracts.
Open or Closed Systems
An open system interacts with its environment.
 It receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the
outside of the system.
 All living systems are open systems.

 Cells, plants, human beings, etc., 10/13/22

 Types of Systems…
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A closed system does not interact with its

environment.
 It is isolated from environmental influences.

For example, chemical reaction in a sealed and

insulated container is a closed system.
 A completely closed system is rare in reality.

A focus on the characteristics of an open system is

particularly timely in the light of present – day business
concerns with computer fraud, invasion of privacy,
security controls, and ethics in computing.

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 Characteristics of Open Systems
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Input from outside: Open systems are self –

adjusting and self-regulating.
Entropy: Open systems resist entropy by seeking
new inputs or modifying the processes to return to a
steady state.
 All dynamic systems tend to run down over time,
resulting in entropy or loss of energy.
Process, output and cycles: Open systems
produce useful output and operate in cycles,
following a continuous flow path.
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 Characteristics of Open Systems…
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Differentiation: Open systems have a tendency

toward an increasing specialization of functions and
a greater differentiation of their components.
Equifinality: implies that goals are achieved
through differing courses of action and a variety of
paths.
 In most systems, there is more of a consensus on
goals than on paths to reach the goals.

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 Types of Systems…
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Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

Adaptive System responds to the change in the
environment in a way to improve their performance
and to survive.
 For example, human beings, animals.

Non Adaptive System is the system which does

not respond to the environment.
 For example, machines.

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 Types of Systems…
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Permanent or Temporary System

Permanent System persists for long time.
 For example, business policies.
Temporary System is made for specified time and after
that they are demolished.
 They are important for the accomplishment of specific
tasks.
 For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it
is dissembled after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System: Natural systems
are created by the nature.
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 Types of Systems…
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 For example, Solar system, seasonal system.

Manufactured System or artificial systems are
formed by human efforts.
 Transport system, communication system, etc. are
examples.
Deterministic or Probabilistic System
Deterministic system operates in a predictable
manner and the interaction between system
components is known with certainty.
 For example, two molecules of hydrogen and one
molecule of oxygen makes water. 10/13/22
 Types of Systems…
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Probabilistic System The output can be predicted

only with a certain degree of error.
 The exact output is not known.
 For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

Social System is made up of people.
 For example, social clubs, societies.
Human-Machine System, both human and
machines are involved to perform a particular task.
 For example, Computer programming.
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 Types of Systems…
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Machine System: human interference is neglected.

 All the tasks are performed by the machine.
 For example, an autonomous robot.

Man–Made Information Systems

An interconnected set of information resources to
manage data for particular organization, under
Direct Management Control (DMC).
 It includes hardware, software, communication,
data, and application for producing information
according to the need of an organization.
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 Types of Information Systems
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Formal Information System: It is based on the

flow of information in the form of memos,
instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of
management.
Informal Information System: Employee based
system which solves the day to day work related
problems.
Computer Based System: Directly dependent on
the computer for managing business applications.
 For example, automatic library system, railway
reservation system, banking system, etc.
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 Types of Information Systems…
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The computer is now a required source of

information.

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 System Models
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Models are used more widely and with greater variety in
systems analysis.
The analyst begins by creating a model of the reality (facts,
relationships, procedures, etc.) with which the system is
concerned.
Every computer system deals with the real world, a problem
area, or a reality outside itself.
Various business system models are used to show the benefits
of abstracting complex system to model form.
The major models are schematic, flow, static and dynamic
system models.

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 Data Processing Models
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These show the processing steps as data flows

through a system.
Data flow diagrams (DFDs) may be used to model
the system’s data processing.
DFDs are an intrinsic part of many analysis
methods.
Simple and intuitive notation that customers can
understand.
Show end-to-end processing of data.

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Order Processing Data Flow Diagram
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 Sematic Models
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A sematic model – Used to describe the logical

structure of data processed by the system.
An entity-relation-attribute model sets out the
entities in the system, the relationships between these
entities and the entity attributes
Widely used in database design.
Can readily be implemented using relational
databases.

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Library Semantic Model
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 Flow systems model
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A flow system model shows the flow of the material,

energy and information that hold the system
together.
A data flow model is a diagrammatic representation
of the flow and exchange of information within a
system.
Data flow models are used to graphically represent
the flow of data in an information system by
describing the processes involved in transferring
data from input to file storage and report generation.
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 Flow systems model…
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There is an orderly flow of logic in such models.

A widely known example is PERT (Program
Evaluation and Review Technique).
It is used to abstract a real world system in model
form, manipulate specific values to determine the
critical path, interpret the relationships and relay
them back as a control.
The probability of completion within a time period is
considered in connection with time, resources and
performance specifications as shown in the figure
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PERT (Network) Diagram
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Flow systems model…
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 Static Models
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This type of model exhibits one pair of relationships

such as activity – time or cost – quantity.
The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an
activity- time relationship.
A graphical representation of a Project that shows each
task as a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to
its time for completion.
Planned activities (stamping, sanding etc.) are plotted
in relation to time.
The date column has light lines that indicate the
amount of time it takes to complete a given activity.
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 Static Models…
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To simplify the chart Project manager can combine

related activities into one Task.
GANTT CHART does not show how tasks must be
ordered (precedence)
It simply shows when a task should begin and
should end

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Static Models…
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 Dynamic Models
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The dynamic model is used to express and model

the behavior of the system over time. 
A dynamic model approximates the type of
organization or application that analysts deal with.
It depicts an ongoing, constantly changing system.
A dynamic model represents the behavior of an
object over time.
States represent the condition of the system at some
moment in time.
It consists of;
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 Dynamic Models…
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 Inputs that enter the system,
 The processor through which transformation takes
place,
 The program(s) required for processing and

 The output(s) that result from processing.

The dynamic model is described with

 State diagrams:

 Sequence diagrams

 Activity diagrams and

 extensions including business process modelling

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Sequence Diagram
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 Sequence Diagram
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Sequence diagrams are used to display the

interaction between users, screens, objects and
entities within the system.
It provides a sequential map of message passing
between objects over time. 

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Issue of Electronic Item
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Activity Diagram
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 Activity Diagram
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Activity diagrams are used to show how different

workflows in the system are constructed;
How they start and the possibly many decision paths
that can be taken from start to finish.
They may also illustrate where parallel processing
may occur in the execution of some activities.

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