Department of Inclusive Education

• Course Name: Special Needs and Inclusive

Education.
• Course Code: EDF 411
• Lecturer: Jeremiah Kampazangula Phiri
 Special Needs Education
Definition:
• Special education is “specially” designed instruction
to meet the unique needs and abilities of exceptional
students.
• It is an individualized support that gives children
with disabilities the extra help they need to learn
from general curriculum, physical therapy,
language therapy, behaviour plan, environmental
accommodations, speech therapy, curriculum
adaptations, and many other supports
 The concept of special needs
• Historically, people with disabilities were often placed in hospitals,
asylums, or other institutions that provided little, if any, education.
• Before the concept of special education, those with disabilities were:
– Used as servants or fools
– Some were put to death in infancy
– Were used as clowns e.g. dwarfs
– Overall, ridiculed for deformities and behaviour
• The concept of special education assumes that children with special
needs can have their needs addressed outside the mainstream/general
education under specialised personnel.
• It is based on the medical model definition of disability which
perceives that the disability is with the individual. It also suggests that
disability requires medical treatment under specialized supervision in
a restricted environment
 UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF
DISABILITY

• This can be defined as a restriction or inability to perform an activity in

the manner or within the range considered normal for a human being,
as a result of impairment.
• Disability is defined as “Any restriction or lack (resulting from an
impairment) of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within
the range considered normal for a human being.
• The Disabled People's International defines disability as: “the loss or
limitation of opportunities to take part in the normal life of the
community on an equal level with others due to physical and social
barriers”. It is worth noting that some countries including Malawi
adopted the definition by W.H.O.  
 MODELS OF DISABILITY
• Models of disability are the frameworks that enable one to
understand the issues of disability and the implications.. They
provide an insight into the attitudes, conceptions and
prejudices of the former and how they impact on the latter.
• They reveal the ways in which the society provides or limits
access to work, goods, services, economic influence and
political power for persons with disabilities.
• The common models of disability include, Medical Model of
disability, Charity Model of disability, and the Social Model
of disability.
 
 A The medical Model of Disability
 With this model, it is believed that the power to change or cure the disability
in persons with disabilities lies with the medical practitioners. Most of the
times, persons with disabilities are handed over to these professionals.
Decisions of medical personnel affect which school the persons with
disabilities should go to (special schools or mainstream schools), what
support they should receive, what benefits they are entitled to, whether they
can find a job or allow them to have children themselves or not.
 It sees disability as a problem, which lies with the individual with disability.
To solve or cure the problem, the medical personnel start with a diagnosis of
what is ‘wrong’ with the person. The life of a person with disability is
eventually defined by the terms of the diagnosis.
 In short, medical personnel focus on the things that the person with disability
cannot do. Prescription is given on consideration that a person with disability
is different from what is considered to be normal and requires special
services.
 Implications of the Medical Model

• The medical model creates low expectations and leads to the persons with
disabilities losing independence, choice and control in their own lives.
• The answer to disability is to “cure” the individual with impairment.
• Success is measured by achievement of ‘normally’.
• Persons with disabilities are perceived as passive recipients of “experienced”
professionals. One practical result has been the establishment of special
schools for children with disabilities in both economically developed and
economically developing countries.
• This approach places emphasis on “getting the child ready for school, rather
than getting the school ready to serve an increasingly diverse range of
children”. In this case the society just integrates the children in schools
expecting them to adapt to the school learning environment and
infrastructure. Integration is based on a medical model whose aim is to
identify deficits in order to try to remedy them
 B The Charity Model of Disability

• Charity Model depicts persons with disabilities

as victims of circumstance, deserving pity. With
this model, disability is viewed as a tragic or
miserable existence to which the only solution
is to raise money or resources with the aim of
reducing the “suffering” of such persons with
disabilities.
 Implications of Charity Model of
Disability
The implication of this model in the context of practice is that:
 They are perceived as individuals requiring help, protection, care, pity, charity,
sympathy, special services, special schools, and charitable donations.
 The idea of being recipients of charity lowers the self-esteem of persons with
disabilities. On the other hand, in the eyes of "pitying" donors, charitable giving carries
with it an expectation of gratitude as well as a set of terms imposed upon the
beneficiary. But what would really make a difference to their lives would be enabling
them to earn their own living, in useful and productive ways. Often ‘giving to charity’ is a
way of covering up and ignoring the real problems in the communities
 Employers will look at persons with disabilities as charitable cases. The implication in the
context of practice is that instead of addressing the real issues of creating a workplace
that is conducive to the employment of persons with disabilities, employers may
conclude that making charitable donations meets social and economic obligations.
 Some religious groups and other organisations respond to issues of disability by giving
alms to persons with disability. They organise fund-raising activities and seek for
donations in form of second hand clothes and money in order to give persons with
disabilities.
 C The Social Model of Disability
Disability is a highly varied and complex condition
with a range of implications for social identity and
behaviour.
Disability largely depends on the context and is a
consequence of discrimination, prejudice and
exclusion.
The social model emphasises the shortcomings in the
environment and in many organised activities in
society, e.g. on information, communication and
education, which prevent persons with disabilities
from participating on equal terms.
 Social Model of Disability CONT….
• The social model is the term used by disabled
people’s organizations (DPOs) who have decided
that the other two models severely and
unnecessarily restrict the roles that people with
disabilities can play in life. Treating people with
disabilities according to the medical or charity
models makes them dependent on other people
and separates them from the rest of society. For
many PWDs, the social model describes the true
nature of the problem of disability: the problem is
not the individual, nor his or her impairment.
 Social Model of Disability CONT….
 Under the social model a person who has an impairment has disability
not because of the impairment, but because of the attitudes of
society, and poorly constructed physical and social environments.
These are all problems that can be resolved. It is not possible to make
all paralyzed people walk, or all blind people see (and indeed it is not
necessary to walk or see in order to have a worthwhile and enjoyable
life); but ramps and lifts can be built, guide dogs can be trained, and
people without disabilities can learn to think in a different way about
such people with disabilities. The problem of disability therefore lies in
how society responds to the individual and his or her impairment, and
in physical and social environments which are designed (by non-
disabled people) to meet the needs of non-disabled people only.
 Further, the social model can be a helpful tool for people with
disabilities and their allies to make positive changes in their lives, and
for non-disabled people to understand more about disability.
 Implications of the Social Model
 This model of disability has allowed many persons with
disabilities to regain control of their own lives becoming
experts on their own experience. It has also provided a radically
different framework with which to understand the
discrimination that arises as a result of impairment.
 It is more inclusive in approach: hence, it minimizes the level of
discrimination among persons. In the context of education, the
social model influenced the notion of inclusive classrooms.
Specifically, the model has resulted in attempts to have learners
with disabilities learn in mainstream schools.
 The model views person with disabilities as having rights to
access, belong to, contribute and be valued in their
communities
 Religious Model of Disability
• The Religious Model views disability as a punishment
inflicted upon an individual or family by an external force.
It can be due to misdemeanors committed by the disabled
person, someone in the family or community group, or
forbears. Birth conditions can be due to actions committed
in a previous reincarnation.
• Sometimes the presence of "evil spirits" is used to explain
differences in behavior, especially in conditions such as
schizophrenia. Acts of exorcism or sacrifice may be
performed to expel or placate the negative influence, or
recourse made to persecution or even death of the
individual who is "different".
 Religious Model……….
• In some cases, the disability stigmatizes a whole
family, lowering their status or even leading to total
social exclusion. Or it can be interpreted as an
individual’s inability to conform within a family
structure. Conversely, it can be seen as necessary
affliction to be suffered before some future spiritual
reward.
• It is an extreme model, which can exist in any
society where deprivation is linked to ignorance,
fear and prejudice.
 Disability And Language

 There are different terms and language that most people use to describe
persons with disabilities which are positive and negative.
 The words that people use when referring to people with diverse abilities
usually reflect attitudes and values.
 They can either make people feel included or discriminated against.
 The positive terms and language build people’s confidence whilst the
negative or discriminatory terms and language destroy people’s
confidence.
 This chapter will focus on the forms of discriminatory terms and
language that are used to describe persons with disabilities and then
provide the appropriate terms and language to be used to describe them
for effective communication.
 Disability and language cont…
 The discriminatory terms and language that are used to describe persons with
disabilities are a major vehicle for the expression of prejudice and are
stereotyping in nature. The stereotypes are discriminatory because they take
away a person's individuality.
 Additionally, the portrayal of persons with disabilities as helpless, mindless,
suffering beings deserving the sympathy and attention of those without
disabilities is one of many powerful stereotypes which has led and continues to
lead to discriminatory treatment of persons with disabilities. It is therefore very
important that persons with disabilities should be portrayed in a positive
manner because they are people just like anybody else.
 Persons with disabilities are just like anybody else and need to be respected
like anybody else in the society. They also experience the same range of
emotions, needs, interests and ambitions as anyone else in the community.
 It is therefore important to use appropriate terms and language to describe
them.
 TOPIC 2: INCLUSIVE EDUCATION (IE)
TERMS AND CONCEPTS USED OR ASSOCIATED WITH
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Inclusive Education uses specific terms and concepts in order to better
respond to learners needs in a regular setting, (Wayne Sailor, 2002).
 Learner diversity - refers to variations of abilities and differences
found among any group of learners in any given setting. (Tim Loreman
elt, 2010).
 These variations and differences give rise to different learner
characteristics.
 Learner diversity is a component of Inclusion in schools as it
determines what assistance to be offered.
 Diversity is an outcome of different social, academic, cultural, talent,
gifts and ability backgrounds. All these differences meet at school,
hence diversity.
 Disability
A disability is a condition of the body part that makes it difficult do a certain
activity or a task (Kauffman 2001)

 Disability has substantive and long term adverse effects on a person and affects how
he/she conducts him/herself in the daily activities.
 It limits interactions, participation and involvement within an individual.
 Impairment –
Impairment is the inability to perform a task with a particular body part (Hewood 2000)
Any temporary or permanent loss or deformity of a body structure or function, whether
physiological or psychological.
An impairment is a disturbance affecting functions that can be mental (memory,
consciousness) or sensory, internal (heart, kidney), or external (the head, the trunk
or the limbs). A physical, intellectual, mental or sensory characteristic or condition,
which places limitations on an individual’s personal or social functioning in
comparison with someone who does not have that characteristic or condition.”
It can be as a result of illness, injury, or a congenital condition. For example,
different impairments can affect someone’s physical mobility or dexterity, his/her
ability to learn, to communicate, interact with others or to hear or see.
 Handicap

 This is a permanent physical or mental condition that makes it difficult or

impossible to use the particular body part due to disability.
 This results from an impairment or disability that limits or prevents the
fulfillment of one or several roles regarded as normal, depending on age,
sex, social and cultural factors.
 It’s a limitation imposed on the individual by environmental demands and is
related to the individual’s ability to adapt or adjust to those demands
 Handicap describes the consequences of a disability (i.e. a person becomes
handicapped if he/she is limited functionally by a disability).

 Discrimination – This is a negative feeling and restriction on others due to

their being different in one way or the other from the majority of the society.
It is also the prejudicial treatment of an individual based on their
membership to certain categories or groups.
Prejudice – this refers to an unreasonable dislike of or preference for a
person, group, custom, etc, especially when it is based on their race,
religion, sex, disability, etc

Marginalisation - means open actions and tendencies perceiving

others as those whose functions are below desired levels.
Marginalisation includes negative actions, practices that bring others
to the margin of anything. Marginalised people are excluded and
removed from the societies. It is basically psychological and leads to
exclusion.

Exclusion - is ‘not including’ some groups of the society. It puts

some people at the perception of the values held by one group of
people and underrates the other.
The role of inclusion

• Improving schools for staff as well as for

students
• Emphasising the role of schools in building
community and developing values in
increasing achievement
• Fostering mutually sustaining relationships
between schools and communities
• Recognises that inclusion in education is one
aspect of inclusion in society (Center for the
Study of Inclusive Education, 2011)
• Ensuring the process of enabling all students
learn and participate effectively within
mainstream school systems.
• Addressing the learning needs of all students
with a specific focus on those who are
vulnerable to marginalisation and exclusion.
 ADVANTAGES OF INCLUSION

Some of the advantages include the following:

• Opportunities for social interaction for
students with disabilities and regular ones.
• Ease in accessing the general curriculum
• Higher academic expectations for students
with disabilities
 Advantages of Inclusion cont…
• Preparation for adult life in inclusive
communities
• Opportunities for regular students to become
more accepting of students with disabilities
• Reduction of stigma associated with
segregation
• Increases self esteem and self reliant in
students with disabilities
 Inclusion is a process.
• Inclusion has to be seen as a never-ending search to
finding better ways of responding to diversity. It is
about learning how to live with difference and learning
how to learn from difference. In this way differences
come to be seen more positively as a stimulus for
fostering learning, amongst children and adults.
• It is concerned with the identification and removal of
barriers.
• Consequently, it involves collecting, and evaluating
information from a wide variety of sources in order to
plan for improvements in policy and practice.
 Inclusion as a process….
• It is about using evidence of various kinds to
stimulate creativity and problem-solving.
• Inclusion is about the presence, participation
and achievement of all students. Here
“presence” is concerned with where students
are educated, and how reliably and punctually
they attend.
• “Participation” relates to the quality of their
experiences
 Inclusion as a process….
• “achievement” is about the outcomes of learning
across the curriculum, not merely test or
examination results.
• Inclusion represents a belief that students with
disabilities belong in regular programme of the school
where special services are available to support the
effort (Biklen, 1992).
• The goal of inclusion is to assure that all Students are
educated in the same classrooms as their regular Peers.

In general, Inclusive education is a human right, and it

makes good social sense.
 Emphasis of Inclusion in IE
• It particularly emphasises on those groups of
learners who may be at risk of marginalisation,
exclusion or underachievement.
• This indicates the moral responsibility to
ensure that those groups that are statistically
most “at risk” are carefully monitored, and
that, where necessary, steps are taken to ensure
their presence, participation and achievement
in the education system.
 Many educators have observed that the
education system views learners with
disabilities as a problem not the system itself.
• IE therefore is concerned with all learners with
a focus on those who have traditionally been
excluded from educational opportunities such
as learners with special educational needs and
disabilities.
 Describing Inclusion/Inclusive
Education
The philosophy of inclusive education
• Inclusive Education means ending segregation or
the deliberate exclusion of individuals or groups
on the grounds of academic performance, gender,
race, culture, religion, lifestyle, health conditions
or disability.
• It is based on the understanding that all learners
have the right to be educated with peers, friends
and family members, in their own neighbourhood
or local community.
• It is a process of increasing participation in
learning, and identifying and reducing barriers
that inhibit the learning and participation of
any learner. Some barriers may stem from,
inter alia, a learner’s economic situation,
environment, culture, disability/impairment or
socio-emotional situation, and others may stem
from poor educational practices.
Philosophy of inclusion
• Philosophy of Inclusive Education shifts the focus from
blaming the child for difficulties in learning to the
interaction between the learner and his/her
environment.
• This interaction is about the quality of a learner’s
experience and how he/she is welcomed, assisted to
learn, and enabled to participate fully in school life.
• Inclusive education does not focus primarily on
changing aspects of the child (physically or
intellectually). However, it does not prevent us from
carrying out interventions that might prove beneficial
to a child’s physical and intellectual well-being.
• Inclusive Education does not pertain only to
integrating children and young people with
disabilities, or those who are vulnerable, into
mainstream schools, or only to ensuring that
excluded learners have access to education.
• Inclusion is more than integration (Ainscow,
1997). It means many things to all people
(Powers, 1996) and is not only concerned with
people with disabilities (Miles et al, 2003). For
example, people with palliative illness, and all
those that are at risk of being marginalised.
 Differences between Integration and Inclusion

• Inclusive education is different from integration

as integration focuses on the placement of
learners with disabilities in the mainstream
education system.
• Integration implies that the students have to
change so that they are able to participate in the
existing school system. In inclusive education a
change is needed to address accessibility and
challenge attitude of head teachers, staff, learners,
parents and the local community.
 Integration
 Integration is about getting learners to fit into a 
particular kind of system or integrating them
into the existing system
 Integration is about giving some learners extra
support so that they can fit or be integrated into
the normal classroom routine.
 Integration focus on changes that need to take
place in learners so that they can fit in.
Inclusion/Inclusive Education
Inclusion is about recognizing and respecting
the differences among all learners and building
on similarities
 Inclusion is about supporting all learners,
educators and the whole systems. The
emphasis is on the development of good
teaching strategies that will be of benefit to all
learners.
 Inclusion focuses on overcoming barriers in the
system that prevent it from meeting the full
range of learning needs.
egrated education sees the child as the problem and inclusive education views the education system as a problem. See examples below

Integration Education – The Learner Inclusive Education: The Education

is a Problem system is a Problem
 Does not respond, cannot learn  Teacher attitudes

 Has special needs and requires  Poor quality teaching

special equipment
 Rigid methods and curriculum
 Cannot get to classroom due to
 Lack of teaching learning and
mobility challenges.
assessment resources
 Needs special environment ie
 Teachers and schools not
bright classroom.
supported
 Needs special teacher
 Many drop-out and repeat due to
 There is exclusion of learners inaccessible environment ie
with disabilities classrooms with no ramps

 Parents not involved

 There is inclusion of learners

with disabilities
 Integration
• Integration is about getting learners to fit into a
particular kind of system or integrating them
into the existing system, (Wayne Sailor 2002),
• Integration is about giving some learners extra
support so that they can fit or be integrated into
the regular classroom routine.
• It focuses on changes that need to take place in
learners so that they can fit in.
What Makes Integration A Problem?
 Critical Components of Inclusive Classrooms

Acceptance and feeling valued

Students with disabilities need to feel accepted and valued
by either their regular colleagues or any member of the
society. For this to be fulfilled, the following must be
checked:
 All students must be fully engaged.
 Teachers and administrators must ensure to accept all
students with disabilities.
 Teachers play an important role in creating an accepting
environment.
 Teachers and administrators need to have positive
attitudes about inclusion and students with disabilities.
 Teachers need to facilitate friendships
Appreciation of diversity

• Diversity is the norm in today’s schools

• This occurs in many areas: socioeconomic,
racial, language, gender, ability, and family
arrangement.
• School personnel need to understand diverse
groups.
• School personnel need to be sensitive to
diversity
Appropriate classroom experiences
1.Curriculum needs to match students’ needs.
2. Effective classroom management sets the stage
for effective instruction.
3. Effective instruction must be individualised.
4. Appropriate accommodations must be provided.
5. School personnel must be flexible in their
instructional practices.
6. Differentiated instruction is important.
Collaborative professional services
• Many different professionals need to be
involved. (Multisectoral collaboration)
• Professionals and paraprofessionals must
collaborate.
• Paraeducators, peer supports, teacher
assistance teams, and other arrangements are
needed for insuring inclusion.
 Groups of Children who are Excluded in the
Education System in Malawi

– Children with disabilities

– Children from poor families
– The girl-child
– Orphans
– Children from geographically disadvantaged areas
– Abused and neglected children
– Children living with or affected by HIV/AIDS
– Children displaced by natural calamities e.g. droughts, floods
– Children on the streets
– Children from child-headed families
– Child labourers (In estates)
– Children with extreme health conditions
– Gifted or talented Children
 Justification for Inclusion (examinable)
Discuss any two justifications for inclusion

1. Educational justification: The requirement of inclusive schools to

educate all children together means that schools have to develop
ways of teaching that respond to individual differences and thereby
benefitting all learners.
2. Social justification: Inclusive schools are able to change negative
attitudes to diversity by educating all children together, thus
inclusive schools form the foundation of a just and non-
discriminatory society. i.e.
• inclusion promotes socialization, acceptance and tolerance.
It is believed that students with disabilities learn more in
integrated settings than in segregated settings. Additionally,
regular students and those with disabilities develop better
working relationships, communications skills, social
interaction skills and friendships when they are in a fully
inclusive environment (Stainback, 1990). Further, students
are better accepted and care for others and become more
embracing of individual differences in full inclusive
environments.
• Inclusion allows appreciation of diversity and differences
• It fights against discrimination in all aspects of life.
3. Economic justification

• It is less costly to establish and maintain schools

that educate all children together than to set up a
complex system of different types of schools
which specialise in educating different groups of
children (UNESCO, 2008).
• In practice, Inclusion is cost effective (i.e. instead
of having two systems operating within the same
community which makes funding most expensive;
inclusion cuts short the expenses, hence cost
effective).
Why advocating for Inclusive Education

Inclusive education is advocated for different

reasons such as:
• All Students have the right to learn together.
• Research shows that Students do better,
academically and socially in inclusive settings.
• Inclusive education is a more efficient use of
education resources (Cost effective)
• It prepares all students for real life situations.
Benefits of Inclusive education to students with
disabilities

• Allows students with disabilities to access the

general curriculum with their regular counterparts.
• Students with disabilities are able to share
resources and skills with their regular friends.
• It makes Students with disabilities feel belonging
to the society of the school.
• It prepares Students with disabilities for
community and workplace interaction.
• It increases friendship, interaction, and networks
for Students with disabilities.
• Care and attention for students with disabilities is
increased.
• Inclusion prepares students with disabilities for
societal existence.
• Students with disabilities have greater success in
achieving Individualized Educational Programme
goals than those in traditional programs.
• Students with special needs gain self-esteem,
acceptance by classmates, and social skills.
• Reduced fear of human differences and increased
comfort and awareness which is essential for
growth in social cognition
• Development of social skills such as the ability
to make friendships
• Development of communication skills
• Academic improvement as they learn from their
classmates
Benefits of Inclusive education to regular students

 Inclusion promotes sensitivity, understanding and

respecting differences of peers (Stuly, 1987).

 There is Improved communication and daily skills

 Regular students benefit more from the modified
curriculum and instructional strategies
 Development of skills and competences of leadership
and care
 It increases cooperation among learners
 Inclusion encourages respect for all people and develop
Positive attitudes ( Stainback & Stainback, 1990).
Benefits of Inclusive education to teachers

 Teachers acquire and develop new skills to manage

diversity in their classrooms.
 There is room for transformation on the teaching
profession
 Inclusion promotes cooperation among teachers
 Team teaching increases as teachers are able to plan and
deliver a lesson as a team
 Teachers’ collaborative skills are enhanced
 There is substantial reduction of self-centeredness on the
part of teachers
There is continued learning and professional
development
Accommodation and accepting change-
promotes flexibility
Teachers adopt integrated teaching styles
There is improved tolerance and acceptance of
change among teachers.
 Benefits of inclusive education to the society

 There is Change of attitude towards those with

disabilities.
 Inclusion helps to overcome exclusion and discrimination
 It helps create an inclusive society as acceptance,
tolerance and accommodation increases
 With inclusion, equality is respected and valued in the
society (Stainback & Stainback, 1996)
 Brief History of Inclusive Education

Students with disabilities, for a long time have been

denied their basic human right to education. They
have been excluded from mainstream education.
Barron and Amerena (2007) have observed that
96% of children with disabilities in developing
countries do not attend school.
Therefore different countries came up with key
instruments and documents to promoted the spirit
of inclusive education.
 These include:

1. UN Convention on the Rights of the Child - 1989

This document has a number of articles but articles 2,
23, 28 and 29 are for education. Articles 23
emphasises on making inclusive education a reality as
it focuses on “non-discrimination”.
 
• The right of all children to have access to education to
quality education was further reinforced by three
major international conference and declarations which
took place between 1990 and 2000.
 (a) World Conference on Education for All: Meeting Basic
Learning Needs - 1990

• This conference was held in Jomtien Thailand. The

Education For All popularly “EFA” was launched. It
stressed that Basic Education should be provided to
all children and that learning needs of children with
disabilities demanded special attention. The
conference also highlighted the need to universalise
education and promote equity by ensuring that girls,
women and other under-served groups gain access to
education.
 (b) UN Standard Rules on the Equalisation of
Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities – 1993

• It states that countries should recognize the principle

of equal primary, secondary and tertiary educational
opportunities for children, youths and adults with
disabilities in inclusive settings.
2. Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action
on Special Needs Education

• The world Conference on Special Needs Education

was held in 1994 at Salamanca in Spain. Its main aim
was to further the objective of Education for all
(EFA).
• It provides the framework and guidance on
developing inclusive education internationally. It
states that all schools should accommodate all
children regardless of their physical, intellectual,
emotional, social, linguistic or other requirements.
Barriers to Inclusive Education

(a) Lack of policy and legislation

• There are various government policy guidelines
concerning special needs but implementation is
not clear. For example, teachers posted to work
with children with special educational needs in
inclusive schools are not paid the special
allowances and face challenges to be promoted.
This demotivates them.
• The ratio of learners with special needs and
disabilities to regular learners in a class or school
is not stipulated by the Ministry of Education.
• Resistance to change and release of power by
policy makers and professionals at various
levels including the persons with special needs
themselves and their parents.
• Parents may prefer to maintain the status to
enjoy the caring protective environment and
facilities in special schools.
 b. Unfriendly learning environment

 These include the following

• Lack of guidance to school community and in
servicing of teachers.
• Lack of understanding on inclusion by
teachers and other school communities.
• Lack of proper and adequate facilities and
infrastructure such as sanitation facilities.
• No acoustically treated classrooms.
• Lack of adequate adaptations in public and private
buildings to allow easy access and mobility of
persons with disabilities.
• Large teacher / pupils’ ratio (overcrowded
classes).
• Shortage of accommodation in boarding
institutions
• Long-distance covered when travelling to day
school.
• Poor teaching and learning approaches.
Poor identification and intervention

This can be observed in:

• Poor identification processes on the part of
teachers.
• Lack of knowledge in identification by
teachers.
• Lack of awareness of educational and
assessment services by both teachers and
community.
d. Diversity of learners:

(Learners’ factors, severity, onset and nature of disability)

• These refer to factors in the learner that may affect

his/her learning and development.
• Disability being mild, moderate or severe.
• A learner might be out of school often to seek medical
attention and this may affect his/her performance.
• Age of onset of the disability or difficulties will affect
on his/her learning.
• The nature of the special needs for example if the
problem is general mental disability or specific learning
difficulties.
Negative attitude of teachers, parents and other stakeholders

• In many African Communities, disabilities are explained to be

resulting from God's punishment for some wrongs done to the
ancestors.
• the child with disability is seen as a curse or possessed by the spirits.
• parents who give birth to CWD hide the child, hence deny them
access to education.
• There are some myths that a mother who gets a baby with albinism
has been adulterous; and if a pregnant woman looks at a person with
physical disability, she will get a baby with physical disabilities.
• the community may feel that they should not provide necessary
suport for the learner with special needs because they feel they are
useless and cannot be educated.
 Poor community involvement

The community may fail to support inclusive education by

not:
 contributing towards construction of school building by
providing local materials such as bricks, stones, sand and
labour;
 encouraging members to send students to school;
 contributing ideas to the teaching and learning
programmes;
 monitoring the discipline of school students both within
and outside the school;
 establishing and sustaining the school as a social service
 Teachers and school management

• some teachers may refuse to having learners with

special educational needs in their class or school
fearing that the learner will lower the passing rate /
standards for their class or school.
• Many teachers think that working with a student with
disability or other special needs calls for technical /
special training.
• Special needs education has been confused by the
belief that it is very special and only for "special
teachers" trained in a special institution.
• Such teachers are considered capable of working
in a special school with a special learner using
special equipment.
• This has led to even the education officers
avoiding to carry out inspection in special
education programmes as they may not
understand the "special world".
• Thus the regular teacher may refer the learner
with special needs to the special school or unit,
hence denying the chance to learn in the natural
inclusive education setting.
• The teacher may have low expectations from the learner
with special needs and may not give him/her challenging
work.
• Some school administrators and policy makers in education
feel that it is improper to 'waste' scarce resources on learners
with special needs while the 'normal' ones do not have
enough, hence unsupportive to inclusion of such learners in
the mainstream school.
• The charity model to disability and special needs provision
has also led the community and other stakeholders to leave
education of learners with special needs as a responsibility
of churches and voluntary organizations.
• This makes the learners develop a sense of dependence and
does not equip them with a life-long education to live
independently in the world after school.
 Curriculum barriers

• The curriculum is an important element for Inclusive education to be

meaningful for learners with special needs in an inclusive setting. However,
according to the Koech Report (1999) the School Curriculum is inappropriate if
there is:
• inadequate educational facilities, equipment and services for children with
special needs including those with disabilities.
• almost no provision for educating some groups of learners such as the gifted and
talented.
• rigid assessment procedures based on competition, which does not consider
learners with special needs;
• failure of the curriculum to address the specific subjects that would cater for
special needs of learners for life long education;
• the curriculum content is too wide making it difficult to assist learners with
special needs;
• limited flexibility of the curriculum because learners are expected to pass same
examinations
 Rigid educational approaches,
evaluation and promotion criteria
• there is lack of long-term professional development,
in-service training for regular / mainstream teachers
to be equipped with inclusive education practices.
• the teachers use methods that aim at the average
learners
• the competition that is emphasized in the
examinations and selection of learners for promotion
to higher levels does not consider learners with
special needs
Insufficient / lack of human and material resources

• lack of equipment or assistive devices such as the

hearing aids which are expensive and some parents
cannot afford to buy them;
• limited trained personnel, for example a high number
of teachers are untrained in special needs education.
• inadequate and inappropriate teaching, learning and
assessment resources.
• Limited or no supervision of schools
• limited collaboration among teachers on issues
concerning special needs education support systems
 Discriminative cultural factors

 Cultures that view the needs of the male child above the girls.
 Girls' education is viewed as an unnecessary/unacceptable cost.
 Harmful traditional practices and attitudes which brings physical
and psychological damage to the children for example initiation
rituals and early marriages among others
 Family separation/divorce which deny the children of the love and
security of one or both parents.
 Long distances between the home and school leaving the children
easy prey to sexual harassment and other forms of abuse.
 Religious practices that may regard disabilities as a sign of God's
disfavour to be the child or the parents. These were portrayed to be
possessed by demons which Jesus removed as bad spirits.
 Political and economic factors

These are indicated by:

• failure to enforce available laws and regulations, which
would otherwise protect children and ensure equitable
allocation of educational funds
• the planning and management processes at central, district
and community levels are not sufficiently sensitive to the
needs of children
• poverty constraints that limit choices available to parents
even if they are concerned about their children's education
• corruption amongst leaders who divert funds meant for
learners with special needs
Ways of overcoming barriers to inclusive education

The following ways may help to overcome the barriers:

• flexible and child centred curriculum
• considering the learners diversity
• developing educational and legal policies that enhance inclusion
• early identification and intervention
• flexibility and diversity of educational approaches
• availability of human and material resources
• sensitization of the community on special needs
• availing funds for inclusive education
• education reforms such as encouraging inclusive education at every
school.
a. Use flexible and child-centered curriculum

• Activities to achieve these include:

• Diversifying the curriculum to suit individual learner's needs
• Adapting examination questions to suit the individual learner's needs
• Allowing learners with special needs more time for content coverage during examinations
• Include specific subjects that are particularly crucial to learners with special needs
• Make education more relevant to daily life and home situations
• Accept that children learn at different rates and vary teaching methods accordingly
• Respond flexibly and creatively to the individual needs of learners
• Be flexible about seating arrangements
• Promote active learning
• Encourage teachers to observe each other and solve problems together
 b. Developing education and legal policies that enhance inclusion

• with proper legislation and policy, teachers can be held responsible for the
learning of students with special educational needs.
• education should be delinked from politics and involve education
technocrats more in decision making
• carry out situations analysis

• select pilot schools for inclusive education

• lobby for system change in education

• develop clear policy and legislation for inclusive education practices

 c. Early Identification and
intervention
• The identification and intervention measures include:
• taking the child for screening and assessment at the
nearest educational assessment and resource centre
• referral for medical intervention such as treatment,
therapy or provision of assistive devices
• starting stimulation programmes in collaboration with
parents and Early Childhood Care Development and
Education staff to stimulate language development.
 d. Flexibility and diversity of
Educational Approaches.
These can be achieved through the following ways:
•regular in-service training of teachers through seminars, workshops,
conferences, lectures, leaflets and media.
•promotion of collaborative learning and teaching approaches in all
learning experiences
•Networking with other professionals especially the Community
Based Rehabilitation (CBR) workers. E.g., BET CURE
•curriculum modification and evaluation procedures. Each learner's
progress should be recognized and praised.
•identification of children with special needs in regular schools and
providing appropriate services for them. E.g., by using Appearance
Behavioural Complex (ABC) Method.
 e. Availability of human and
materials resources.
This can be facilitated by doing the following:
•Support from the educational administration to finance the adaptation and
modification of the learning environment (in regular schools) for learners with
special needs to be accommodated in the class or school
•The need for updating class teachers' teaching skills. This can be achieved
through many activities such as seminars and workshops.
•curriculum materials and resources to be put in accessible formats (putting
the learning resources in braille’s) and displaying positive images of learners
with all types of difference (teachers need to be caution when they give
examples.)
•training of teachers in special needs education to meet the demand.
•The organisations for PWD and others should be recognised as they provide
the much required assistive and corrective devises for learners with
disabilities.
•Education officers and teachers should network with agencies for resources
such as Christoffel Blinden Mission (CBM), World Vision International
f. Availability of Funds for Inclusive
Education
Funds can be used for:
•Training teachers, sensitising regular learners, management teams and
community to enhance full capacity of the schools to respond to inclusive
education.
•Resourcing partnerships with potential resource providers such as
international donors, non-governmental organizations, local business and
industries of goodwill for financial and technical aid
•Merging funding systems for mainstreaming and special education and
allocating funds to schools in relation to the number of learners with and
without special needs appropriately
•Finding simple and cost effective ways of overcoming barriers in the physical
environment e.g., removing bees
 g. Educational Reforms
Separate systems of education that is: special schools and regular schools need to
be integrated to provide one system, which is able to recognize and respond to the
diverse needs of the learners. This helps to:
•improve students' outcomes for employment (how the learner is improving leading
to economic improvement as a result of academic and social improvement)
•get more control over curriculum content and assessment

•reduce educational costs to the government (e.g., teachers, administrators, T/L/A

resources and school blocks).
•increase community input to education through direct involvement

•involve the learners more in decision making about their learning

THREATS TO QUALITY INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
 Learners with special needs
•
These are students who experience difficulties in learning and require
special assistance to succeed academically. These include:
(a). Learners with disabilities
(b). Gifted and talented learners

IDENTIFICATION OF LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL

EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
• Identification is a procedure carried out to find out the uniqueness,
distinctiveness or specifications of individual learners needs in inclusive
education.
• It involves various processes such as assessment, screening, testing,
examination, diagnosis, monitoring and evaluation.
 Methods of identification
• Use ABC
• Use transfer letter
• Use Interview and information from parents and guardians
• Use referral letters
• Use tests, Examination.
• Use health workers/specialists advices (verbal or written)
• Use personal evaluations
• Use attendance registers
 Identification process

• It include identification of factors causing the

difficulties.
The factors can be the ones within the students,
school environment factors (students’ attitude and
motivation) and home circumstances. For instance, a
student with difficulties in mathematical calculations
can experience the difficulty due to his/her attitude
towards mathematics, methodology used by the
teacher, home environment and frequent absenteeism.
RESPONDING TO LEARNING DIVERSE NEEDS

TEACHING CHILDREN WITH

DISABILITIES/IMPAIRMENTS IN A MAINSTREAM
CLASS
Categories Of Disabilities/Impairments
•Hearing impairment (HI)
•Visual impairment (VI)
•Deaf-blindness (DB)
•Learning Difficulties (LD)
•Physical impairment
•Health impairment
 Hearing Impairment
Hearing impairment is the loss in the hearing ability
due to a disability.
Levels of hearing impairment.  
SEVERITY INDICATORS
a) Mild hearing loss
•May have difficulty with faint or distant sounds.
•May have problems in conversations, groups, or
settings with much noise.
b) Moderate hearing loss
• Frequent difficult with normal speech, especially in
conversations, groups and class discussions.
c) Severe hearing loss
• Great difficult with even loud or amplified speech, which
seems faint and distorted. Requires amplification and intense
speech and language training.
d) Profound hearing loss
• May be aware of loud sounds and vibrations, but generally
cannot understand even amplified speech
Source: Adapted from Winzer, M (2004) Children with
Exceptionalities (7th Ed). Pearson: Toronto
 Causes of Hearing Impairment
1. Congenital factors
• Those factors that can make someone be born with a hearing
impairment and are subdivided into two types.
Environmental factors:
•Infection during pregnancy eg. Sexually transmitted infections
(STI)
•Accidents during pregnancy
•Use of drugs such as penicillin or quinine during pregnancy
•High blood pressure
•Drinking alcohol during pregnancy.
2. Heredity factors
This is a tendency of an organism or child resembling its parents

3. Acquired factors
•These are factors that make someone have a hearing impairment
before, during and after birth.
•Before birth an embryo can be damaged because of diseases.
•During birth, hearing impairment can be caused by difficult
delivery; prolonged delivery, premature or post-mature birth.
After birth, hearing impairment can be caused by diseases, ear
infections , accidents, drugs, loud noise, foreign bodies and
poking ears.
4. Time of onset factors
•It refers to natural loss of hearing accompanied
by advancement in age.
•This is caused by gradual cell deterioration or
degeneration of sensory cells or nerve fibres due
to old age. The condition is referred to as
PRESBYCUSIS
 Characteristics Of Learners With Hearing
Impairment

• Speaking very softly or shouting when talking.

• Sitting closer than normal to the source of sound.
• Giving incorrect or irrelevant answers.
• Turning heads in order to listen with a better ear.
• Cupping their ears with hands.
• Ear discharge or bleeding.
• Ask for repetition frequently.
• Follow lips of the speaker or watches teachers or
speakers intently trying to grasp words
 Measurement of Hearing Impairment

Audiology:
•Audiology is the science of detecting and
correcting hearing impairment. Audiologists
carryout behavioural, audiological evaluation.
The audiologists use an audiometer to generate
pure tones at different levels of intensity and
frequency.
 Types Of Hearing Tests

There are three types:

• Pure tone audiometry:
Is designed to establish an individual’s thresh-hold of
hearing. A thresh-hold of hearing is a level at which
a person can detect sound.
• Speech eudiometry: This is designed to assess
individual’s ability to detect and understand speech.
Speech detection thresh-hold refers to the intensity
level at which a person can hear sound and
understand.
 Infant Distraction Test (IDT)

• This is a test for infants of about 7 months and tests

whether the child can tell precisely where a sound is
coming from.
 How to assist the Learner in class

• Place the learner in front of the classroom

and near the window or the light source.
• Face the learner when giving instructions,
• Stand near a light source.
• Speak clearly – use a strong voice, speak
naturally and at a normal rate.
• Reduce any background noises in the
classroom
• Use as many visual – cues as possible like
gestures, signs, and facial expressions.
• Give the learner enough time to respond
• Alert group members to involve the learner
with HI during group work.
• Arrange for remedial teaching of the learner
together with other learners.
 Modes Of Communication For A Learner With
Hearning Impairment

• Oral Communication – (Communication by

word of mouth)
• Sign Language – This is a mode of
communication that uses specific hand signs
to represent things, actions and ideas.
 Learners With Visual Impairment (VI)

A visual impairment is a reduction or loss in vision.

The sight loss can be total or partial. Some
conditions can be treated or corrected to improve
vision.
 Types of Visual Impairment

Blindness
• This is a total loss of vision. A person with total blindness is
unable to see light (NLP). Some cannot see anything while
others may only see a difference between light and dark and/or
day and night, but cannot see any shapes or things. Others can
see shapes of large objects, but none of the details.
Low Vision
• This is a partial visual impairment.
• A person with low vision has impairment of visual functioning
even after treatment and/or eyeglasses, but is potentially able
to use vision for the planning and execution of a task. This
may be moderate, profound or severe. Often these students can
see much better with eyeglasses or a magnifying glass
Levels of Visual Impairment

• Moderate Visual Impairment – May find it

difficulty in performing tasks without the use of aids
and lighting. Performance can be comparable to
pupils with normal vision.
• Severe Visual Impairment – May find it difficulty in
performing visual tasks such as reading, writing and
some physical activities.
• Profound Visual Impairment – Means all visual
tasks are very difficult. Vision cannot generally be
used for detailed tasks.
Causes of Visual Impairment

1. Cataracts - The lens (a part of the eye just behind the

black circle in the centre) becomes white or milky.
This may be hereditary or be caused by an eye injury.
2. Dry eyes (xerophthalmia or nutritional blindness) - This
results from lack of vitamin A.
3. Trachoma - This is caused by virus and spread by touch or
flies.
4. Gonorrhoea - in the eyes of newborn babies causes
blindness if not treated immediately.
5. Chlamydia – This is a sexually transmitted infection.
• River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) - This
is spread by a black fly that breeds in
rivers and streams. There is no cure.
• Brain Damage – This causes blindness
in many students, usually in combination
with cerebral palsy or other disabilities.
• Eye injuries – For example pointed
tools, fireworks, acid, lye and homemade
bombs used to dynamite fish.
 INDICATORS OF LEARNERS WITH
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

A. SPECIFICINDICATORS

•Eyes or eyelids are red, have eye discharge or

continually form tears
•Eyes look dull, wrinkled, or cloudy,
•One or both pupils (the black centre of the eye)
look grey or white
• Eyes do not follow an object or light that is moved in
front of them
• Squints (half shuts his/her eyes) or tips head to look at
things
• Takes little interest in brightly coloured objects or
pictures and books, or puts them very close to their face
• Has difficulty seeing after the sun sets (night blindness)
 B. GENERAL INDICATORS

•Complains of headache or painful eye

•Discomfort in bright light.
•Handwriting off the lines or difficult to read.
•Skipping of words, letters or lines when reading.
•Holding reading material at an unusual angle or distance.
•Blurred or double vision.
•Poor eye-hand coordination.
•Problems with reading long passages, or failing to complete
other school tasks which require excessive use of vision.
•Problems in distinguishing pictures.
•Getting confused with details on maps and diagrams
•Tilting the head towards one side.
•Blinking excessively.
•Walking as if is moving into the trench.
Teaching learners with Low vision and blindness in a
classroom

• Let the learner sit close to the chalkboard or far away

from the chalkboard (at a comfortable place).
• Chalkboard work should be clear and large enough.
• The chalk used should be of good contrast to the
chalkboard. (e.g. the colour of the chalk should be of
a good contrast.)
• Due to individual differences in colour vision, each
student should be allowed to use writing materials of
preference e.g. blue, green, black, red, bold lined
exercise books etc.
• Tests, examinations and exercises should be
enlarged as per individual needs. Those who
use braille must be provided braille materials.
• Do not hurry them when observing an object.
• Mobility and orientation is required so that the
students can find facilities within the
classroom and the school environment, such as
other classes, latrines and the play area.
• Sensitize the whole class to support the
students with VI.
Methodology of Teaching Learners with Visual
Impairment.

• Co-active teaching: teach from behind the

student with V.I. when demonstrating an activity.
This makes it easier to understand and copy a
movement or activity.
• Multi-sensory approach: for good concept
development, encourage the student with VI to
use other senses of feel, hear, taste and or smell as
well. Give the students ample time to feel
something in order to develop concepts.
Question technique:
• Use QPN. use disability friendly words.
• Involve them as much as possible. This helps
them to be very active in class.
• Reward/praise every attempt and make the
pupil feel positive about the task.
Mode of communication:
Either Large Print or Braille.
• Practical lessons
a. Divide the pupils in groups
b. Assign the V.I. pupil secretary of each
group.
c. Whatever findings the group may come up
with should be pronounced
loudly for the secretary to make a record.
d. Maps and diagrams should be modified.
 LEARNERS WITH LEARNING
DIFFICULTIES/DISABILITIES (LD)
LD are an umbrella term for a wide variety of learning problems.
These include as follows:

Specific Learning Disabilities

Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or
using language, spoken or written, which may manifest itself in
the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, write, spell, or do
mathematical calculations.

Signs and symptoms of Specific Learning Disabilities

• Difficulty with reading comprehension or mathematical skills.
• Trouble with open-ended test questions and word problems
• Dislikes reading and writing
• Poor handwriting
• Poor organizational skills (bedroom,
homework, desk is messy and disorganized)
• Trouble following classroom discussions and
expressing thoughts aloud
• Spells the same word differently in a single
document
 Examples of Specific learning Disorders

1. Dyslexia –A learner experience difficulty in reading.

Signs of reading difficulty include problems with:
• letter and word recognition
• understanding words and ideas
• reading speed and fluency
• general vocabulary skills

2. Dyscalculia - A learner experiences difficulties in

understanding mathematical calculations.
• Dysgraphia - A learner experience difficulties
in writing.
Signs and symptoms of Dysgraphia include
difficulties with:
• Neatness and consistency of writing
• Accurate copying of letters and words
• Spelling consistency
• Writing organisation and coherence
• Dyspraxia (Sensory Integration Disorder) –
The disability involves difficulty with fine
motor skills.
A notable sign of the disability includes
problems with hand-eye coordination, balance,
poor performance on simple skills such as
buttoning and picking of small object from the
ground using hands.
• Aphasia/Dysphasia – A severe language
disorder/ a dysfunction in the development of
speech and language expression. The disability
affects the ability to understand or produce
spoken language. 
• Speech and language – This is as a result of
difficulties in language production.
Signs and symptoms include; stuttering or
stammering.
How to handle such learners.

1. Use a variety of T/L and methods which may include:

 Demonstration method e.g. how to write d.
 Role-play method e.g. Dramatizing (shopkeeper)
 Group method (gifted and talented helping others)
 Discussion method (sharing ideas with the teacher)
 Question and Answer method (ask, pause and name)
 Task Analysis (breaking an activity into teachable sub-
topics).
 Chaining (flow of actions broken into steps e.g. putting
on a shirt)
 Prompting
2. Use of adapted curriculum

a). Adapting learning environment

This makes the instruction more effective.
• B). Adapting the curriculum
it should have specialised approaches like braille, sign
language, and mobility education.
C). Adapting teaching strategies
Special strategies that meet the needs of the student
with exceptionalities.
d). Using assistive and instructional technology
These are devices that help students with
exceptionalities to communicate and receive
information;
Factors to consider when adapting the curriculum

• Quantity- adapt number of items that learner is

expected to learn.
• Time- adapt time allocated and allowed for learning,
task completion or testing.
• Level of support- increase amount of personal
assistance with a specific learner.
• Input- adapt the way instruction is delivered to the
learner.
• Difficulty- adapt skills level, problem type or rules
on how the learner may approach the task.
THE END…wish you all the best!