THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

HISTOLOGY OF THE GIT
ORAL CAVITY, LIPS & CHEEKS, PALATE , PALATINE TONSILS
 Tongue
The tongue is a large, muscular organ that occupies
most of the oral cavity proper when the mouth is closed.
Attachment of the tongue
Muscles associated with the tongue; intrinsic and
extrinsic muscles.
Terminal and median sulcus, papillae of the
tongue
Moist stratified squamous epithelium covers the
tongue
 Functions of the tongue

The tongue moves food in the mouth (chewing)

It holds the food in place during mastication.
It plays a major role in the mechanism of swallowing.
It is a major sensory organ for taste
It is a primary organ of speech.
Blood supply
The main arterial blood supply to the tongue is by the
lingual branch of the external carotid artery, venous
drainage is by the lingual vein, which joins the internal
jugular vein.

Nerve supply
Nerve supply is hypoglossal nerve, Mandibular branch
of trigeminal nerve, facial and glossopharyngeal nerve
Teeth
Normal adults have 32 teeth, which are distributed in
two dental arches.
Quadrants
Arrangement of the Teeth
Types of dentition and period of eruption
Structure of a tooth
Each tooth consists of a crown, a neck, and a root. The
crown is the part of the tooth that protrude from the gum
and exposed in the oral cavity.

The center of the tooth is a pulp cavity, which is filled with

blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue called pulp.

The pulp cavity is surrounded by a living, cellular, and

calcified tissue called dentin

The surface of the dentin in the root is covered with a

cellular, bonelike substance, called cementum, which
helps anchor the tooth in the jaw.
Structure of the tooth
Blood supply

Arterial blood supply to the teeth is by the branches of

the maxillary arteries, venous drainage is by a number
of veins, which empties into the internal jugular veins.

Nerve supply
The nerve supply to the upper teeth is by the branches
of the maxillary nerves and to the lower teeth by the
branches of mandiblar nerves.
Function

Mastication
Food taken into the mouth is chewed, or masticated, by the
teeth.

Four pairs of muscles move the mandible during mastication:

The chewing, or mastication, reflex, which is integrated in the

medulla oblongata, controls the basic movements involved in
chewing.

 The presence of food in the mouth stimulates sensory

receptors, which activate a reflex that causes the muscles of
mastication to relax.
Salivary Glands
Three pairs of large paired multicellular glands exist:
parotid, submandibular, and the sublingual glands.
 Numerous small, coiled tubular glands are located
deep to the epithelium of the following;
 Tongue; (lingual glands)
 palate (palatine glands)
 Cheeks (buccal glands)
 Lips (labial glands).
 Composition of saliva

The serous part of saliva, produced mainly by the

parotid and submandibular glands, contains a
digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, lyzozome
and immunoglobulin A.

The mucous secretions of the submandibular and

sublingual glands contain a large amount of mucin, a
proteoglycan that gives a lubricating quality to the
secretions of the salivary glands.
 Functions of saliva
 
Chemical digestion of polysaccharides
Antibacterial infections
Lubrication of food 
Cleaning and lubricating the mouth
 Control of saliva secretion

Salivary gland secretion is stimulated by the

sympathetic and Parasympathetic nerves
 Parasympathetic stimulation causes profuse secretion
of watery saliva with a relatively low content of
enzymes and other organic substances.
Sympathetic stimulations results in secretion of small
amount of saliva rich in organic material, expecially
from the submandibular glands
 Pharynx
Anatomical part of the pharynx
The walls of the pharynx consist of three layers;
The lining membrane (mucosa);
The middle layer consists of connective tissue,
which becomes thinner towards the lower end and
contains blood and lymph vessels and nerves.
The outer layer consists of a number of involuntary
muscles called pharyngeal constrictors
 
 Blood supply
Several branches of the facial arteries, venous drainage
is into the facial veins and the internal jugular veins.

Nerve supply
It is from pharyngeal plexus (parasympathetic and
sympathetic
 Esophagus
Structure and position
Size
Layers
Mucosa lining
Blood supply
Blood supply is from the paired esophageal arteries,
venous blood drains into the azygos and hemizygos
veins.
Functions of the mouth, pharynx and oesophagus

Formation of bolus 
Swallowing
Swallowing, or deglutition, is divided into three phases:
Voluntary phase
Pharyngeal phase
Esophageal phase
 Stomach
The stomach is an enlarged J-shaped segment of the
digestive tract situated in the left hypochondriac, unbilical
and the epigastric region of the abdomen.

Organs related to the stomach

Anteriorly – the left lobe of the liver and the anterior
abdominal wall
Posteriorly – abdominal aorta, spleen, pancreas, the left
kidney and the left adrenal gland
Superiorly – diaphragm and the oesophagus
Inferiorly – transverse colon and the small intestine
Laterally - diaphragm and spleen to the left side, liver and
duodenum to the right side
Blood supply and venous drainage

Histology of the Stomach

The serosa
The muscularis
The submucosa and the mucosa are thrown into large
folds, called rugae.
 Gastric Juice secretion of the Stomach
Ingested food and gastric secretions from the stomach
mix together to form a semifluid material called
chyme.
About 2 to 3 litres of gastric juice are secreted daily by
specialized secretory glands in the mucosa of the
stomach.
Functions of the gastric juices
 The epithelial cells of the stomach

Surface mucous cells

Mucous neck cells
 Parietal (oxyntic) cells
 Chief (zymogenic) cells
Endocrine cells
 Regulation of gastric juices secretion

The nervous mechanisms involve reflexes integrated

within the medulla oblongata and local reflexes
integrated within the enteric plexus of the GI tract.
Chemical signals that regulate stomach secretions
include the hormones gastrin, secretin, gastric-
inhibitory polypeptide, and cholecystokinin.
 Stomach secretion regulatory phases

Cephalic phase
 Gastric phase
 Intestinal phase
 Movements of the Stomach
Stomach Filling
Mixing of Stomach Contents (mixing and
peristaltic waves)
Stomach Emptying (The peristaltic contractions
responsible for movement of chyme through the
partially closed pyloric opening are called the pyloric
pump)
Regulation of Stomach Emptying
 Functions of the stomach
Storage
Secretory function
Digestive function
Protective function
Absorptive function
 Small intestine
Anatomical structure
Position/extent
Blood supply
Anatomical parts
Histological structure
Secretions of the Small Intestine
Movements of the Small Intestine
Small intestine
Alimentary canal and accessory organs
 Microscopic structure

Serosa (peritoneum)
Functions of the mesentery
It suspends the small intestine from the posterior
abdominal wall, anchoring them in place, and permits
some degree of movements
It provides a conduit for blood vessels, nerves and
lymphatic vessels.
 Mucosa

The mucosa and sub mucosa form a series of folds called the
circular folds.

A tiny fingerlike projection of the mucosa forms numerous villi

which are 0.5–1.5 mm in length.

Each villus is covered by simple columnar epithelium and

contains a blood capillary network and a lymphatic capillary
called a lacteal.

Most of the cells that make up the surface of the villi have
numerous cytoplasmic extensions (about 1 m long) called
microvilli
 Mucosa epithelial cells
Absorptive cells; they are cells with microvilli, which
produce digestive enzymes and absorb digested food

Goblet cells; produce a protective mucus

 Granular cells (Paneth’s cells); protect the intestinal

epithelium from bacteria

 Endocrine cells; produce regulatory hormones.

 Surface-bound enzymes

disaccharidases, which break disaccharides down to

monosaccharides

 peptidases, which hydrolyze the peptide bonds

between small amino acid chains

 Nucleases, which break down nucleic acids

 Anatomy and Physiology of the Liver

Structure of the liver

Organs related
Lobes of the liver
Blood supply
Portal fissure
Microscopic anatomy of the liver
Functions of the liver
 Anatomy of the Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ of the body,
weighing about 1.36 kg.

 It is situated in the right-upper quadrant of the

abdomen

 Its upper and anterior surfaces are smooth and curved

to fit into the under surface of the diaphragm.
 Organs related to the liver
Superiorly – diaphragm
Anteriorly – anterior abdominal wall
Inferiorly – stomach, bile ducts, duodenum, right
kidney and right adrenal gland
Posteriorly – inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta,
gall bladder, vertebral column and diaphragm
Laterally – lower ribs and diaphragm
 Portal fissure
Right and left hepatic ducts unite to form a single
common hepatic duct.

 Cystic duct from the gallbladder joins the common

hepatic duct to form the common bile duct

.
 Portal fissure Cont

 Common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct at the

hepatopancreatic ampulla.

The hepatopancreatic ampulla empties into the

duodenum at the major duodenal papilla.
Histology of the Liver
 Functions of the Liver
Bile Production
Storage
Nutrient Interconversion
Detoxification
Inactivation of hormones
Production of heat
Phagocytosis
Synthesis
Ducts of the GIT ASSESSORIES ORGANS
The Pancreas
The large intestine