Unit - II

Programming in assembly language (ALP) vs High Level

Language

C Program Elements:- Macros and functions,

Use of Date Types, Structure, Pointers, Function Calls

Program Modeling Concepts – Program Models- DFG

Models – FSM Models – Modeling of Multiprocessor
Systems
 Data Structures: Arrays

• Array: A structure with a series of data items

sequentially placed in memory
• Each element accessible by an identifier name
(which points to the array) and an index, ‘i’
(which define offset from the first element)
• ‘I’ starts from 0 and is +ve integer
 One dimensional array (vector)
Example 1: unsigned int salary [12];
salary [0] – 1st month salary
salary [11] – 12th month salary
Each integer is of 32-bit (4 bytes);
salary assigned 48 bytes address space
 Two dimensional array
• unsigned int salary [11, 9];
salary [3, 5]– 4th month 6th year salary
salary [11, 4] – 12th month 5th year salary
salary assigned 12*10*4 = 480 bytes address
space
 Multi-dimensional array
• char pixel [144,176, 24];
pixel [0, 2, 5] – 1st horizontal line index x,
3rd vertical line index y,
6th color c.
pixel assigned 144*176*24 = 608256 bytes
address space in a colored picture of
resolution 144x 176 and 24 colors
 Queue
• A structure with a series of data elements with
the first element waiting for an operation.
• Used when an element is not to be accessed
by index with a pointer directly, as in an array,
but only through FIFO (first in first out) mode
through a queue-head pointer.
• An element can be inserted only at the end
(also called tail or back) in series of elements
waiting for an operation and deleted from
front (queue-head).
• There are two pointers, one for deleting after
the read operation from the head and other
for inserting at the tail. Both increment after
an operation.
Circular Queue
 Priority Queue
• When there is an urgent message to be placed
in a queue, we can program such that a
priority data element inserts at the head
instead of at the tail.
• That element retrieves as if there is last-in first
out.
 Standard Functions used in a queue
1. QELInsert – Insert an element into the queue
as pointed by *qtail and increment the qtail
pointer address
2. QELReturn – Return an element into the
queue as pointed by *qhead and the element
deletes from queue on increment in the qhead
pointer address─ return also means delete
3. isQNotEmpty– Return true or false after the
check for the queue not empty.
 Data Structure - Stack
• A structure with a series of data elements with
last sent element waiting for a delete
operation.
• Used when an element is not to be accessible
by the index with pointer directly, as in an
array, but only through LIFO (Last in first out)
mode through a stack-top pointer.
 Stack
• Push and Pop onto a Push and Pop onto a
STACK
• A data-element can be pushed (inserted) only
at the from front (stack-head) in the series of
elements waiting for an operation and popped
(deleted) also from front (stack-head).
Standard Functions used in a Stack
1. SELInsert – Pushes a data-element into the
stack as pointed by item and increment the
item pointer address
2. SELReturn – Pop an element from the stack as
pointed by *item and the element deletes
from stack on decrement in the item pointer
address
3. isSNotEmpty– Return true or false after the
check for the stack not empty.
 Stack Pointer
• SP (stack pointer): SP is pointer to a memory
block dedicated to saving the context on
context switch to another ISR or routine.
 List
• list differs from an array; array memory
allocation- as per the index assigned to an
element.
 List
• each element- Must include along with an
item a pointer, LIST_NEXT. Each element is at
the memory address to which the predecessor
list-element points.
• LIST_NEXT points to the next element in the
list. LIST_NEXT points to NULL in element at
end of the list.
• The memory-size of an item of an element can
also vary. The address of the list element at
the top is a pointer, LIST_TOP. Only by using
the LIST_TOP and traversing through all the
LIST_NEXT values for the preceding elements
can an element be deleted or replaced or
inserted between the two elements
• A list differs from a queue as follows: A queue is
accessible and is readable as FIFO only.
• An insertion of an element in the list can be done
anywhere within it only by traversing through
LIST_NEXT pointers at all the preceding elements.
An insertion is always at the tail in queue.
• Also, an element can be read and deleted from
anywhere in the list only by traversing through
the list. It is always from the head in the queue.
 Tree
• When the list becomes long traversing
through it, insertions, deletion, and search of
an element in-between the list becomes
lengthier process.
 Tree
• Suppose a list element instead of just pointing
to the next element through LIST_NEXT, it
points to two elements using LIST_NEXT_LEFT
and LIST_NEXT _RIGHT or to more than two
elements by LIST_NEXT1, LIST_NEXT2, …. Then
instead of List, we form a Tree.
 Tree
1) There is a root element.
2) Root has two or more branches each having a
daughter element.
3) Each daughter element has two or more
daughter elements.
4) Last one (leaf) does not have any daughter
element and points to Null.
 Tree

5) Only the root element is identifiable and it is done by

the treetop pointer (Header).
6) Each element points to TNodeNextLeft and
TNodeNextRIGHT in a binary tree and or to more than
two elements by TNodeNext1, TNodeNext2, … ,
TNodeNextN in tree with N-branches (maximum) at a
node.
7) Since no other element is identifiable directly, by
traversing the root element, then proceeding
continuously through all the succeeding daughters, a
tree element can be read or read and deleted, or can
be added to another daughter or replaced by another
element.
 Tree
7) Last element in the node points to NULL like
in a list.
8) A tree has data elements arranged as
branches. The last daughter, called node has
no further daughters. A binary tree is a tree
with a maximum of two daughters (branches)
in each element.
 Application Examples of a Tree
1. A directory - Number of file-folders, Each file-
folder having a number of other file folders
and so on and a file is at the least node (leaf).
2. USB Devices nodes connected to hubs and
nodes, and finally to a host controller at root.
3. Network architecture in which a central
server connects to multiple servers and
clients
 Table
• A two-dimensional array (matrix) and is an
important data set that is allocated a memory
block.
• There is always a base pointer for a table.
• Base pointer points to its first element at the
first column first row.
• There are two indices, one for a column and
other for a row.
 Pointers in Table

• Three pointers, table base, column index and

destination index pointers can retrieve any
element of the table
 Hash Table
• A hash table is a two-dimensional array
(matrix) with first column can be said to hold
key and second column the values
• An important data set.
• Each row has key and from look at the key, the
addressed data in second column is traced
• Just as an index identifies an array element, a
hash-key identifies a hash element
Hash Table