UNIT - 3

FOOD PROCESSING
Definition
 Food processing is the transformation of cooked ingredients, by
physical or chemical means into food, or of food into other forms.
 Food processing combines raw food ingredients to produce
marketable food products that can be easily prepared and served by
the consumer.
 Food processing involves the conversion of raw materials and
ingredients into an acceptable food product for the consumer.
 It encompasses every aspect necessary to transport raw materials
from the harvest site through packaging & merchandising.
 It involves the application of scientific principles to slow down or
stop the natural process of food decay caused by microorganisms,
enzymes in food or environmental factors such as heat, moisture
and sunlight and thus preserving the food.
Definition
 Various activities covered in this process are mincing, cooking,
canning, liquefaction, pickling, macerating and emulsification.
 It takes clean, harvested crops, or butchered and slaughtered animal
products to produce attractive, marketable, and in several cases, life-
long food products.
 However, food processing can also lower the nutritional value of the
food and might include additives that might adversely affect health.
 The term processing is very broad and encompassing many
techniques.
 These include primary processing like threshing, de-husking,
polishing and grinding in case of food grains and preliminary
operations such as cleaning, washing, sorting, grading, peeling,
blanching and cutting to produce secondary processed products like
bread, biscuits, pickles, frozen meals etc.
Objectives of Food Processing
Food technology is a very vast domain concerning with
the production and processing of food. Food processing
has certain objectives, such as:
 Removal of unwanted matter from the food.
Unwanted matter maybe inedible, indigestible,
harmful to health. The unwanted matter is removed by
appropriately designed gadgets the processes include
shelling, destoning, milling, peeling etc.
 Making food safe for consumption-  food sometimes
contain toxins which are harmful to health. These
toxins need to be inactivated. E.g. trypsin inhibitors in
soybeans, fungal toxins such as aflatoxin in mouldy
groundnut & grains can be removed by visual
examination. Use of processes which remove toxins,
and heat to destroy microorganisms & their toxins.
Objectives of Food Processing
 Enhance flavour, colour and taste-The acceptability
of food depends to a large extent on its organoleptic or
sensory qualities. Processing techniques enhance the
appearance of food and many techniques make food
more appetizing and tasty such as caramelization of
sugar fermentation batter, and alcoholic fermentations
produce superior taste as compared to unprocessed
food.
 Improve texture &consistency- Processes such as
emulsification, aeration, gel formation & increase in
viscosity are aimed at improving the texture and
consistency of ready to eat, cook-chill & freeze
operations. Processing prevents changes inconsistency
of such operations during the freeze-thaw process
crystal foods & disable texture can be obtained. 
Objectives of Food Processing
 Extending shelf life- Processing extends the shelf
life, as all the processes like dehydration, cold storage,
canning & pasteurization are aimed at preservation of
food.
 Increasing acceptability through fabricated
food new products of uniform size and shape are
being introduced in the market which is good for
health.  Health drinks like aloe vera juice is blended
with tastier substances so as to increase its
acceptability. Availability of ready to eat foods,
extruded foods is all because of food processing
techniques thus helping in new food product
development.
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Following are some major types of Treatment applied in
Food Processing:-
 Use of Low Temperature
 Use of High Temperature
 Dehydration
 Use of Preservatives
 Controlled Atmosphere Storage
 Fermentation
 Radiation
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Use of Low Temperature/ Cold Processing
 Low temp preserves food by retarding chemical
reactions enzymatic action and growth activity of
microorganism.
 The lower the temp the better the food will be
preserved.  At low temperature, microorganism is not
killed and their number can multiply once the
temperature becomes favourable.
 Refrigeration–
 Temperature of 1-4ºC prevent food from spoiling for
short periods.
 Frozen foods kept at -18ºC can be preserved for a
year.
 Chilling temp. retards microbial growth and
biochemical changes which affect color, texture ,
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
 Freezing- 
 Preserves food for a longer period by reducing its
temp to -18ºC or lower.
 At this temp water present in food is converted to ice
& microbial growth stops.
 It retains colour, flavor & nutritive value , however
texture of some foods is adversely affected. Fruits,
vegetables, meat, fish & poultry.
 Various techniques used for freezing are blast
freezes, plate freezers, immersion freezers, spray
freezers etc.
 Advantages
 Prolongs shelf life without adversely affecting
nutritive value & sensory quality of food.
 Controls chemical & enzymatic changes in food.
 Disadvantages  
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Use of High-temperature/ Thermal processing
 High temperature destroys micro-organism.
 At temp above 63ºC bacteria stop multiplying and as the
temp increases, they are gradually destroyed.
 Blanching –
 It is a pretreatment.
 Foods which are to be frozen, dried or canned are
immersed in hot boiling water for a few minutes prior to
processing.
 It helps in removal of peel, inactivation of enzymes,
removal of gas in tissue spaces which helps in proper
filling of the can.
 Pasteurization
 There are 3 methods
 Low temp holding  (LTH) 62ºC for 30mins
 High temp short time (HTST) or flash method 72ºC  for
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Use of High-temperature/ Thermal processing
 Canning – 
 Temp used are above 100ºC.
 The temp & time required for canning depends on the
type of food to be canned.
 All the microorganisms are destroyed by heating the
food in an autoclave at a temp between 115ºC &
125ºC.
 This method is used to preserve fruits, vegetables,
fish, meat, poultry, etc.
 Cooking- 
 Temperature attained in this procedure is 100º C.
 At this time microorganisms are destroyed but spores
survive.
 Methods of wet cooking are boiling, steaming,
steaming, stewing and poaching. Dry cooking are
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Use of High-temperature/ Thermal processing
 Advantages
 Heating above 55ºC denatures enzymes,  halts
ripening, enzymatic browning & spoilage of food.
 Heating above 100ºC with modified pressure helps in
the sterilization of food products & equipment.
 Disadvantages
 Prolonged heating causes the development of burnt
flavour, dark colour &loss of nutrients.
 Excessive heat denatures proteins, destroys vitamins,
dries out food by removal of moisture.
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Dehydration /Control of Water Content (drying)
 It is the process of removal of moisture from the food.
 Drying is defined as the application of heat under
controlled conditions to remove the majority of the
water normally in the food by evaporation.
 The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf
life of foods by a reduction in water activity.
 Methods used are 
 Sun Drying – Used for fruits like grapes, apricots etc.
This methods leads to  contamination.
 Use of Mechanical Driers – food to be dried is passed
on conveyor belts, hot air is  passed through the food.
E.g. Milk. Dried food is packed in air –tight containers
immediately.
 freeze-Drying – in this method of removal of water, the
product is frozen and the temp is so maintained that the
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Dehydration /Control of Water Content (drying)
 Advantages
 Dried products are lighter, lesser bulky,
easy  economical to store pack & transport.
 Have low microbial content, enzymatic actively get
reduced or stopped due to loss of moisture &
application of heat.
 Disadvantages
 Cellular structure gets destroyed resulting in
major  alterations in shape, colour, texture, taste and
mouthfeel.
 Certain nutrients like vitamin C, riboflavin, thiamin
get destroyed.
 Rehydration or reconstitution may not always result in
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Use of Preservatives
 A preservative is any substance which retards
deterioration of food.
 Class I –natural – Sugar, common salt, glucose,
fructose,   vinegar, wood smoke. There is no restriction
by law on their addition to food.
 Class II- chemicals – They are added in defined
permitted limits. They are usually added at the end of
the processing operation. Eg – benzoic acid, nitrates,
nitrites etc.

Controlled Atmosphere Storage

 It is controlling & maintaining environmental conditions
in a way to reduce ripening of fruits & vegetables by
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Fermentation
 Selected microorganisms are used giving distinctive
taste, higher nutritive value & longer  shelf life
 Eg:  alcoholic beverages such as beer & wine lactic acid
fermentation in curd & yoghurt.
 Advantages
 Selective and careful fermentation can help in creating
new dishes and variations.
 Helps in the preservation of food &  improving shelf
life.
 Disadvantages
 Large-scale fermentation needs to be handled carefully
otherwise can head to food poisoning .
TYPES OF TREATMENT - In food processing
Radiation
 Radiation of various frequencies ranging from low-
frequency microwaves to high-frequency gamma rays
are used to preserve various foods .
 Ultraviolet irradiation- effective in killing bacteria and
viruses can be used  for  surface sterilization of food
 Microwave –heat food by penetrating it
 Advantages
 No significant changes develop in sensory
characteristics.
 No harmful effects if done as per the recommendation
of FDA/PFA .
 Disadvantages
 Excessive IR cans adversely affect nutrients, flavor,
Benefits & Drawbacks - In food processing
Benefits of Food processing
The important benefits of food processing include:
 Food processing reduces the number of harmful bacteria
in food that can cause diseases. For eg., drying, pickling
dehydrates the food product and alters the pH that
prevents the growth of harmful microorganisms.
 It also improves the shelf-life of food products.
 It reduces health inequalities and major health concerns.
Drawbacks of Food Processing
The important drawbacks of food processing include:
 Processed food contains artificial ingredients.
 A large number of resources are spent in making the
food pleasant to the brain that leads to overconsumption.
 Processed foods are the biggest source of added sugar
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
INTRODUCTION
 The term "functional foods" refers to foods and their
components that may provide a health benefit beyond
basic nutrition. 
 Functional foods do more than meet minimum daily
nutrient requirements —they also can play a role in
reducing the risk of disease and promoting good health.
 Biologically active components in functional foods
impart health benefits or desirable physiological effects.
 All foods have a function when consumed in proper
balance as part of an overall healthy diet. 
 Functional foods may include whole foods, such as
fruits and vegetables, which represent the simplest
example.
 Those foods that have been fortified, enriched, or
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
 The functional attributes of many traditional foods are
only now being discovered.
 Examples include phytoestrogens in soy foods and a
variety of antioxidants in fruits and vegetables, such as
lycopene in tomatoes.
 Still, new food products are being developed with
beneficial components, with a focus on wellness and the
reduced risk of chronic disease .
 i.e., foods and beverages containing pre-and probiotics
to maintain gastrointestinal health, calcium-fortified
beverages to maintain bone health, and dressings and
spreads containing plant stanol and sterol esters, which
may decrease the risk of heart disease.
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
HISTORY
 Over two thousand years ago Hippocrates said, "Let
food be thy medicine."
 Although the concept of functional foods is not entirely
new, it has evolved considerably over the years.
 In the early 1900s food manufacturers in the United
States began adding iodine to salt in an effort to prevent
goiter, representing one of the first attempts at creating a
functional food through fortification.
 Other twentieth-century examples include vitamin A and
D fortification of milk and niacin and folic acid
fortification of grains.
 These early fortification examples, however, focused on
reducing the risk of diseases of deficiency.
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
 Research now focuses frequently on the promotion of
health through many lifestyle factors, including the
consumption of an optimal diet.
 The “functional food” concept was developed in Japan
at the early 1980s and as “food for specified health use
(FOSHU)” was established in 1991.
 “Functional Food” defined as “any food or ingredient
that has a positive impact on an individual’s health,
physical performance, or state of mind, in addition to its
nutritive value”.
 Should be naturally occurring, can be consumed as part
of the daily diet, and when ingested should enhance or
regulate a particular biological process or mechanism to
prevent or control specific diseases.
 As of 2002, researchers have identified hundreds of food
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
 In 1989 Dr. Stephen De Felice, founder and chairman of
the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine located in
Cranford, New Jersey, coined the term "Nutraceutical“
from "Nutrition" and "Pharmaceutical".
 “Nutraceutical” defined as ‘a food or part of food,
which provides medical or health benefits, including the
prevention and treatment of disease.
 Nutraceuticals are natural bioactive, chemical
compounds that have health promoting, disease
preventing or medicinal properties.
 Components that not only maintain, support, and
normalize any physiological or metabolic function, but
can also potentiate, antagonize, or otherwise modify
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
DEMAND
 Consumer interest in the relationship between diet and
health has increased the demand for information on
functional foods.
 Rapid advances in science and technology, increasing
health-care costs, changes in food laws affecting label
and product claims, an aging population, and a rising
interest in attaining wellness through diet are among the
factors fueling U.S. interest in functional foods.
 Credible scientific research indicates many potential
health benefits from food components.
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
CONSUMER ATTITUDES
 The International Food Information Council (IFIC) has
been researching awareness of, and attitudes about,
functional foods, through both qualitative and
quantitative research.
 In 2002 telephone surveys with U.S. consumers were
conducted, building on quantitative data collected in
1998 and 2000.
 As in 1998 and 2000, the vast majority of consumers
believe that they have a "great amount" of control over
their own health.
 Also, in comparing the effects of nutrition, exercise, and
family health history on health, consumers believe that
nutrition plays the greatest role (71 percent versus 63
percent and 41 percent, respectively).
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Functional food Potential health benefit Labeling claim
Whole foods    
Oats Reduces cholesterol and May reduce the risk of 
constipation, reduces risk of  heart disease
heart disease
Soy Reduces cholesterol, reduces risk May reduce the risk of
of osteoporosis, certain cancers, heart disease
and heart disease
Fruits and Reduces risk of certain cancers May reduce the risk of
vegetables and heart disease; reduces some cancers; May reduce
hypertension the risk of heart disease
Fish Reduces cholesterol and None
triglycerides
Garlic Reduces risk of heart disease and None
certain cancers, reduces
cholesterol
Grapes/grape Reduces risk of heart disease Structure/function claim
juice
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Enriched foods    
Grains Reduces risk of certain cancers, heart May reduce the risk of
disease, and nutrient deficiencies some cancers; May reduce
the risk of heart disease
Fortified foods    
Juices with Reduces risk of osteoporosis, reduces Helps maintain healthy
calcium hypertension bones and may reduce risk
of osteoporosis
Grains with Reduces risk of heart disease and May reduce risk of brain
folic acid neural tube birth defects and spinal cord 
birth defects
Infant Reduces risk of iron deficiency None
formulas with
iron
Grains with Reduces risk of certain cancers and May reduce the risk of
added fiber heart disease; reduces cholesterol and some cancers; May reduce
constipation; increases blood-glucose the risk of heart disease
control
Milk with Reduces risk of osteomalacia and Helps maintain healthy
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Enriched foods    
Grains Reduces risk of certain cancers, heart May reduce the risk of
disease, and nutrient deficiencies some cancers; May reduce
the risk of heart disease
Fortified foods    
Juices with Reduces risk of osteoporosis, reduces Helps maintain healthy
calcium hypertension bones and may reduce risk
of osteoporosis
Grains with Reduces risk of heart disease and May reduce risk of brain
folic acid neural tube birth defects and spinal cord 
birth defects
Infant Reduces risk of iron deficiency None
formulas with
iron
Grains with Reduces risk of certain cancers and May reduce the risk of
added fiber heart disease; reduces cholesterol and some cancers; May reduce
constipation; increases blood-glucose the risk of heart disease
control
Milk with Reduces risk of osteomalacia and Helps maintain healthy
 FUNCTIONAL FOODS
BENEFITS OF FUNCTIONAL FOODS
Enhanced foods    
Dairy products with Reduces risk of colon cancer Structure/function claim
probiotics and candidal vaginitis;
controls inflammation;
treatment of respiratory
allergies, diarrheal disorders,
and eczema
Beverages and salad May support overall health Structure/function claim
dressings with
antioxidants
Foods and beverages Varies with ingredients Structure/function claim
containing herbal
preparations
Sports bars Varies with ingredients Structure/function claim
Spreads with stanol Reduces cholesterol Structure/function claim
esters
Foods containing sugar Reduces risk of tooth decay May reduce risk of tooth
alcohols in place of decay
sugar
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
Quality is a desired attribute for any food product.
Consumer chooses food on the basis of its quality and their
individual likes and dislikes. When consumer makes a
selection they basically look for food that is attractive in
terms of colour, flavour, texture, the nutritional quality and
shelf life or keeping quality and cost factor, other criteria
which may affect their selection.

OBJECTIVES
 To develop new products-the food industry depends on
evaluation in developing new products and maintaining
quality in existing products.
 To observe consumer reactions-how the consumer reacts
to particular food dictates the quality of the product.
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
OBJECTIVES
 To collect information of food acceptability-the studies
on plate waste provide valuable info. Regarding food
acceptability.
 To assist in determining the shelf life of a product.
 To understand how the product competes in the market.
 To determine whether or not consumers can detect
differences between product due to recipe modification.

* Quality can be evaluated by sensory methods i:e by

sensory organs like eyes, nose and mouth or by objective
methods i:e by use of instruments.
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
SENSORY ASSESSMENT OF FOOD QUALITY
 When the quality of food is assessed by means of human
sensory organs the evaluation is said to be sensory or
subjective or organoleptic evaluation.
 The method of judging food by a panel of judges.
 The evaluation deals with measuring, analyzing and
interpreting the qualities of food as they are perceived
by the senses of sight, taste, touch etc.
 By the senses of sight, the size shape and colour of the
food and other characteristics like transparency,
opaqueness, turbidity dullness or gloss can be perceived.
 Other sensory organs i.e. nose and mouth are utilized to
obtain info. On flavour
 Flavour of a substance is due to the combined senses of
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
 The various attributes to be judged are-
 APPEARANCE-The surface characteristics of food
product contribute to the appearance. Example: the
surface of a chocolate is smooth.
 COLOUR-Colour provides variety to the diet and used
as an index of quality for a number of foods. Example:
Ripeness of fruits and the strength of tea and coffee.
 FLAVOUR-Flavour has 3 components odour, taste
and mouthfeel. Mouthfeel consists of texture,
consistency and temperature of food.
 The texture of the food can be smooth or velvety as
that of an ice-cream or can be coarse.
 Astringency- It is the puckering sensation that is felt
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
METHODS OF SENSORY EVALUATION IN FOODS
Evaluation of foods involves instrumentation and use of
physical and chemical techniques to evaluate food quality. 
Food quality has both subjective and non-subjective
aspects. Appearance, texture, and flavour are largely
subjective attributes, whereas nutritional and bacterial
quality is not. Major methods of food evaluation include
 Discrimination tests
 Rating tests
 Sensitivity tests
 Objective Evaluation
Conducting Sensory Evaluation
 A panel of judges is selected. They should be unbiased
for tasting.
 Physical, Psychological, and environmental conditions
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
Classification of Methods of Sensory Evaluation
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
Classification of Methods of Sensory Evaluation
Discrimination tests
They are also known as difference tests carried out by
small group of trained judges. The judges are asked to
describe differences in the samples presented to them in
any of the following ways:
 Triangle test-three samples one different and two
identical. Panelist has to identify the odd sample.
 Duo-trio test- this test also uses three samples, one
different two identical. First the panelist is presented
with one of the identical sample known as the reference.
Subsequently the other two are presented in random
order. The panelist has to match one of these to reference
sample.
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
Classification of Methods of Sensory Evaluation
Rating tests
These are quantitative and are very often used for
consumer testing. They employ more than two sample and
can tell which one is better.
1. Ranking test-the panelists are presented 2-7 samples to
rank them in an increasing or decreasing order based on
one or more attributes such as flavour, colour or texture.
2. Hedonic rating test-this can measure food acceptability
by different groups of consumers, e.g. school canteens,
mess. The panelist rate the food on a 9 or 5 point hedonic
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
scale ranging from like extremely to dislike extremely. 
Dislike Dislike Dislike Dislike Neither Like Like Like Like
extreme very moderat slightly like nor slightly moderat very extreme
ly much ely dislike ely much ly
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
Classification of Methods of Sensory Evaluation
Rating tests
3. Numerical scoring test- score system is used to evaluate
the foods.eg score of 90 may be awarded to excellent
quality, whereas a score of 20 may be assigned to the
poor quality product.
4. Composite scoring- this rates every quality attribute
such as colour, texture and flavour separately and then
scores are compounded. Total scores represent overall
acceptability of the product.
Scorecard using
descriptive ratings:
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
Classification of Methods of Sensory Evaluation
Sensitivity tests
 They assess the ability of individuals to identify and
detect different aspects of food quality. They help in
training panelists for evaluating specific food products.
 Threshold test- any food item or water with salt or
sugar in increasing concentration.
 Dilution test- this test is used to detect the presence of
unknown substance added in a small amount to a natural
food product.
Objective Evaluation
 It consists of various physical and chemical tests to
measure physical features, such as volume, viscosity,
specific gravity and chemical composition such as
 EVALUATION OF FOOD

Test/
Description Product
Instrument
Physical
   
methods
Penetrometer Measures tenderness Meat
Compressim Measures Firmness or softness of a
 
eter cooked product
Shortometer Determines texture of a baked product Cookies, pastries

Farinograph Determines consistency Dough

Chemical
   
methods
Nutrient Kilocalories,
Determines nutrient content in food
analysis protein, fat etc.
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
INTRODUCTION TO PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF
FOOD CONSTITUENTS
 This system of analysis divides the food into six
fractions:
 Moisture,
 Ash,
 Crude protein,
 Ether Extract,
 Crude fiber and Nitrogen-free extractives. 
 The moisture content is determined as the loss in weight
that results from drying a known weight of food to
constant weight at 1000C.
 This method is satisfactory for most foods, but with a
few, such as silage, significant losses of volatile material
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
INTRODUCTION TO PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF
FOOD CONSTITUENTS
This system of analysis divides the food into six fractions:
 Moisture,
 Ash,
 Crude protein,
 Ether Extract,
 Crude fiber and Nitrogen-free extractives. 

 Moisture Content
 The moisture content is determined as the loss in weight
that results from drying a known weight of food to
constant weight at 1000C.
 This method is satisfactory for most foods, but with a
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
 Ash Content 
 The ash content is determined by ignition of a known
weight of the food at 550°C until all carbon has been
removed.
 The residue is the ash and is taken to represent the
inorganic constituents of the food.
 The ash may, however, contain material of organic
origin such as sulphur and phosphorus from proteins,
and some loss of volatile material in the form of sodium,
chloride, potassium, phosphorus and sulphur will take
place during ignition.
 The ash content is thus not truly representative of the
inorganic material in the food either qualitatively or
quantitatively.
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
 Crude Protein (CP) 
 The crude protein (CP) content is calculated from the
nitrogen content of the food, determined by a
modification of a technique originally devised by
Kjeldahl over 100 years ago.
 In this method, the food is digested with sulphuric acid,
which converts to ammonia all nitrogen present except
that in the form of nitrate and nitrite.
 This ammonia is liberated by adding sodium hydroxide
to the digest, distilled off and collected in standard acid,
the quantity so collected being determined by titration or
by an automated colourimetric method.
 It is assumed that the nitrogen is derived from protein
containing 16 percent nitrogen, and by multiplying the
nitrogen figure by 6.25 (i.e. 100/16) an approximate
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
 Ether Extract (EE)
 The Ether Extract (EE) fraction is determined by
subjecting the food to a continuous extraction with
petroleum ether for a defined period.
 The residue, after evaporation of the solvent, is the ether
extract.
 As well as lipids it contains organic acids, alcohol and
pigments.
 In the current official method, the extraction with ether
is preceded by hydrolysis of the sample with sulphuric
acid and the resultant residue is the acid ether extract.
 Crude Fibre (CF) and Nitrogen-free Extractives
(NFE)
 The carbohydrate of the food is contained in two
 EVALUATION OF FOOD
 Crude Fibre (CF) and Nitrogen-free Extractives
(NFE)
 When the sum of the amounts of moisture, ash, crude
protein, ether extract and crude fibre (expressed in g/kg)
is subtracted from 1000, the difference is designated
the nitrogen-free extractives.
 The crude fibre fraction contains cellulose, lignin and
hemicelluloses, but not necessarily the whole amounts
of these that are present in the food: a variable
proportion, depending upon the species and stage of
growth of the plant material, is contained in the
nitrogen-free extractives.
 The nitrogen-free extractives fraction is a heterogeneous
mixture of all those components not determined in the