UNIT – V

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION – II

Vegetables & Fruits / Stock / Sauces / Soup / Salad
Cooking is incomplete without fruits and vegetables. A variety of fruits are available in India. We have the
king of fruits – the Mango, which is the pride of our nation. Apart from mangoes and their varieties a lot of
different fruits are available here, such as apples, grapes, bananas etc. Fruits can be had uncooked and cooked
too, they form a major component of desserts in continental cookery. Today we are able to have access to a lot
of exotic fruits too, which otherwise were not available in India, like – kiwi fruits, mangosteens, star fruit, etc.
Vegetables are an integral part of cookery, for both vegetarians and nonvegetarians. No meal is complete
without a vegetable be it Indian or continental. Vegetables add color to the menu, and also fiber for the body.
Vegetables and fruits provide a lot of nutrition to the body. ‘An apple a day keeps the doctor away’ is a well-
known adage. A poor man’s apple – the banana is a power-packed fruit, which gives valuable micro-nutrients
to all.
Vegetables refer to all plants or parts of plants which can be eaten raw, cooked or preserved in some form.
Vegetable are of great importance in our diet and especially with regard to the present trend when the people
are shifting towards the vegetarian side. These play a very important role in our diet properly choose, properly
cooked or raw. They make an invaluable contribution to the supply of vitamins and minerals. Whenever
possible, we should serve two vegetable in our diet also salads should be given the importance and hence must
be made in both the meals. Generally, vegetables have high water content, which ranges from 70-90%.
The various components of vegetables are:
1. Carbohydrates: carbohydrates are present in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose & pectin substances.
Starch is the chief nutrients of roots & tubers & the content of sugar is highest in beetroot, carrots &
turnips. Cellulose is a source of roughage and becomes coarse & tough with age.
2. Minerals and vitamins: the vegetable also contains minerals and vitamins.

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
In vegetarian cooking, vegetables are the prime ingredients. Let us see their classification on the basis of their
place in the context of plant structure.
Leafy Vegetables
They are the leaves of the vegetable plant. They can be either consumed directly or cooked. They can be used
in salads for direct consumption, in gravies, soups, and other foods. They have short shelf life, say a couple of
days. For example, fenugreek, spinach,
dill, curry leaves, cilantro, parsley, mint,
oregano, thyme, basil, and leeks of onion
and garlic.
These vegetables may have pests on the
back of their leaves. Hence while
selecting the fresh and good quality leafy
vegetable, the buyer needs to be careful.
In addition, they must be cleansed
thoroughly before using to wash off any
pesticides present on the leaves.

Root Vegetables
They are the roots of the plant. For
example, Radish, beet root, turnip,
Malanga, and carrot. They can be consumed raw or cooked after cleaning off the soil properly. Root
vegetables must be preferably peeled before using. They are used for preparing stews, side dishes and salads.
Stem / stalk Vegetables
They are the useful stems of the plant and have high
quantity of mass. They can be cut, chopped, or diced. They
can be consumed raw or cooked. Their shelf life is longer
than leafy vegetables but shorter than bulb vegetables.

For example, Asparagus, Celery, Plantain stem and lotus

stem. The North Indians use lotus stem in pickles.

Tuber Vegetables
Tuber vegetables are the swollen part of the stem that grows underground. Potatoes are used all over the
world in a wide range of cuisines. Fresh ginger and turmeric are used to prepare pickles and pastes.
For example, Potato,
Ginger, Turmeric, and
artichoke are some of
the stems, which grow
underground.

Fruit Vegetables
They are the fruits of a plant and are called culinary fruits. They grow in large quantity. Some of them can be
eaten raw and rest all need cooking.
They need to be cleaned, cut into
pieces, and grilled or cooked for
consumption. The chefs require to
pay extra attention while cutting for
the presence of any pests inside
these vegetables.
For example, Eggplant, green
chilies, coconut, Ladies finger
(okra), tomatoes, cucumber, various
types of gourds, pumpkin, and
various colored bell peppers
(capsicums), drumsticks. Fruit
vegetables are used to make stock,
soups, and stews.
Brassica (Bud & Flower)
Vegetables
Bud Vegetables
They are prominently the bud part of their plant. For example,
Lettuce and cabbage. They appear as if unopen or bloomed at the
time of their harvesting. They are mostly consumed directly.
Lettuce is used in sandwiches and salads. Cabbage is an
important ingredient in South Asian cuisines.
Flower Vegetables
They are the flowers of vegetable
plant. They are cut into pieces and
cooked to make stews. They also
need thorough washing to remove the
pests or tiny insects. For example,
Cauliflower, Broccoli, Moringa
(Flower of drumstick plant),
Artichoke.

Bulb Vegetables
A bulb is an underground part of the plant where
nutrients are stashed. These bulbs are one of the
main ingredients in cookery. They are used to
flavor soups and stews. They are also used in
seasoning various dishes. They have longer shelf
life than any other type of vegetable. For example,
onion and garlic.

Fungi Vegetable
Commonly used fungi is mushroom. They are
consumed as staple diet all over the world.
There are many types of edible mushrooms
with various shapes and colors. Mushrooms
are also used in preparation of sauce.

SEEDS, EDIBLE PODS AND YOUNG SHOOTS: 

This is a broad category of vegetables it includes Peas, Snow peas, All types of beans, Bean sprout, Corn etc.,

SPATIALITY VEGETABLES: 
There are vegetables which do not fit it any other category. E.g. Artichoke, Rhubarb, etc.,

Pigments: four pigments are in the vegetables:

1. Chlorophyll: it is present in all green coloured vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, green beans, broccoli,
peas etc.
2. Carotenoids: it is present in orange coloured vegetables such as carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, corns,
tomatoes etc
3. Flavons: it is present in white coloured vegetables such as cauliflower, turnips, potatoes, onion etc.
4. Anthocyanins: it is present in red & purple coloured vegetables. Beet roots, red cabbage (not tomatoes).
Reasons for which vegetables are cooked
1. To soften the product
2. To improve the flavor.
3. To increase the digestibility.
4. To preserve the vegetables.

Effects of heat on vegetables

Cooking is the application of heat ‘’’to food to make it safer to eat, digestible and more palatable. Cooking
also changes the appearance of the food. Heat breaks down the cellulose and the starches present, changes and
blend flavor within the food, and also destroy bacteria to make food digestible.
 CARBOHYDRATES: Caramelization and Gelatinization. Both sugar and starch are carbohydrates.
Caramelization is browning of sugars and Vegetables get softened by the gelatinization of the starch.
 VEGETABLE FIBERS: Fibbers are a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to
plant. they cannot be digested. Heat breaks down the fibers. Alkali makes fiber softer but make them
mushy and lose essential vitamin’s.
 MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS AND FLAVOUR COMPONENTS:  Minerals dissolve in
water during cooking. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by prolonged cooking. Pigment and
flavor may also determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat or not.
 PROTEIN: When heat is applied to the protein they become firm or they start to coagulate with heat.
Proteins become tough and dry when exposed to high heat.

Various Rules For Vegetable Preparation

1. Do not let the vegetable soak in water unless necessary.
2. Wash the vegetables just before peeling.
3. Cook or bake the vegetable in the’ir skin.
4. Use the minimum amount of liquid during boiling.
5. Use the water in which the vegetables are boiled (pot liquor).
6. Use the correct cooking medium which can be acidic, alkali or neutral.
7. Cut the vegetable as near to the cooking time as possible.
8. Serve the food as soon as it is ready for the service.
9. Keep the oxygen away from the vitamin-rich foods by covering them with water.
10. For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.
11.  If vegetable must be cooked in advance, slightly undercook them, cool rapidly in cold water, drain and
refrigerate, then reheat to order.
 
Suggestive cooking for different vegetables 
 Boiling: This is the most common method of cooking vegetables. For green vegetables such as peas,
french beans, etc. The vegetables are put in boiling water and cooked for the minimum time possible and
refresh to avoid overcooking. Green vegetables while boiling should not be covered; otherwise, their color
will be changed to olive green. Root vegetables should be placed in cold water and the pot should be
covered by a lid, the water is brought to boiling point then simmer till the vegetables are cooked.
 Steaming: vegetables are cut into even size after washing and placed in the steamer for cooking. This
method helps in the maximum preservation of the nutrients and good for peas, beans, cauliflower,
cabbage, etc.
 Braising: vegetables after blanching are laid on aromatic to be braised such as cabbage, onion, etc.
 Baking: vegetables baked in a baking oven suitable for potatoes, tomatoes, pimentos, etc
 Roasting: some vegetables can be roasted. They are placed in a hot pan containing oil and condiments
suitable for potatoes, onions, and parsnips, etc.
 Shallow frying: it is applicable for mushrooms, onions, pepper, tomatoes, etc.
 Deep frying: vegetables such as potatoes, brinjals and onions can be deep-fried but a loss of vitamins
takes place in this method of cooking.
 Grilling: small potatoes can be grilled to give color.
 Stewing: vegetables such as marrows, peas, etc. Can be stewed.

How to Retain the color of Green Vegetables

 Cook them uncovered to allow the vegetables volatile acid to escape. when the vegetables are cooked with
a cover, the plants natural acid in leeched into the cooking liquid and is trapped there creating an acidic
cooking medium. This combined with the heat present and destroys the pigment.
 Cook them quickly until just “Al Dente”, Extended exposure to heat will destroy the color.
 Steam Green vegetables whenever possible, this shorten the cooking time, allows for less acid build-up
and retain more color.

CUTS OF VEGETABLES
Different vegetable cuts suit particular dishes. Traditional cuts based on classical French cookery.
Brunoise
This is a very small diced cube, sized between 1-3 mm square. Often used as a garnish for consommé. Typical
vegetables used are carrot, onion, turnip and celery.
Macédoine
This is diced cube 5 mm square. Root vegetables are suited to this cut, e.g. carrot, turnip, swede.
Baton
Sticks of vegetables approximately 5 cm long, 5 mm wide and 5 mm thick. Used as an accompaniment.
Jardinière
A short thin baton or stick, about 2.5 cm long and approximately 3 mm wide and 3 mm thick. Size may be
varied depending on end use.
Paysanne
Various thin shapes such as squares, triangles, circles or half rounds. In order to cut economically, the shape
of the vegetable will decide which shape to choose. All are cut thinly, about 1-2 mm thick.
Julienne
Long thin match-stick shaped pieces about 4 cm in length. Vegetables cut julienne are mostly used as garnish.
Chiffonade
Finely sliced or shredded green leafy vegetables, usually lettuce or spinach. Mostly used as a base for serving
food oras a garnish.
Mirepoix
A mixture of roughly chopped vegetables which are used as the flavour base for sauces or other dishes.
Usually includes onion, celery and carrot.
Matignon
Roughly cut vegetables cooked in butter, with ham, thyme and bay leaf, finished by deglazing the pan with a
little Madeira or wine. Usually includes onion, celery and carrot. Used to add flavour, especially when
braising large pieces of meat.
 Chateau / Tournée
The word “tournée” is French for “turned.” In fact, potatoes that have been cut this way are sometimes called
“turned potatoes.” In French cooking, there are several “standard” sizes:
 Château — 2.5” long, 1.5” thick
 Anglaise — 2” long, 1” thick (most common)
 Cocotte — 1” long, 0.5” thick
  Olivette — 0.5” long, 0.25” thick
Wedges
Spherical fruits and vegetables are cut into half, then cut at an eagle into wedges – shapes with the thick end
and a tapering thin edge – to the thickness you want.
VEGETABLE YIELDS:
Yield percentage and quality of some vegetables is as follows:-
S.no Vegetable Yield % Quality

1 French beans 85% Firm, evenly green & should break at 90º bent.

2 Beetroot 45 % Firm, small, round & leaves on head.

3 Cabbage 80% Firm and Heavy

4 Celery 60% Bright green, tender and have green leaves

5 Corn 25% Moist and Green Husk

6 Cucumber 70% Firm and crisp

7 Brinjals 90% Dark, Purple and Heavy

8 Garlic 80% White, Firm and Dry Skin

9 Leeks 80% Outside should be green and fresh

10 Cauliflower 50% Should have tight bulb and white in color

11 Mushroom 90% Whitecap and Firm

12 Lady Finger 90% Small, Bright and Green

13 Onions 90% Firm and Bright Skin

14 Herbs 80% Bright green and Crisp

15 Peas 40-50% Fresh and Firm Pods

16 Capsicum 80% Bright Green and Shinny

17 Raddish 90% Firm, tender and crisp

18 Spinach 50% Bright and dark green

19 Tomatoes 90% Bright red, firm a and heavy

20 Turnips 65% Small, firm and heavy

21 Lettuce 60% Outer leaves should be fresh and green

22 Spring 70% Bright, unblemished green ends and firm bulb

 Onions

23 Pumpkins 60% Heavy firm and hard rind

24 Carrots 70% Fresh, crisp, hard and not too big

25 Potatoes 80% Pale yellow, dry skin

FRUIT COOKERY
Fruits are pulpy in character, often juicy & generally developed from flowers of plants & consist of a ripened
seed or seeds with some edible tissues attached.

TYPES OF FRUITS
Stoned fruits
 These have got a single prominent seed present in the middle.
 Apricots, cherries, peaches, plums
 Used in jams, pies, puddings and sweet dishes.
Hard fruits
 These have got hard layer of fibers & generally firm when touched.
 Apple, pears etc.
 Used in pastries, apples are used for garnishing meat dishes, salads; sauces etc., waldrof salad, apple
sauce serve with roast meat etc.
Soft fruits
 These have got soft layer of fibers and should be handled very carefully.
 Black &red currants, berries, etc.,
 Generally stewed and are used in pies and puddings. Also used for jams and as flavouring
Citrus fruits
 These are the fruits which have got acids present in them.
 Lemons, limes, oranges etc.
 They are not cooked usually but are generally used for flavouring and garnishing purposes. They are
used to prepare fruit salad.
Tropical fruits
 These generally grow in the hot region where the temperatures might sore up to 50ºc
 Guavas, bananas, dates, figs, mango, papaya, pineapple, litchis etc.
 They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing.
 Mango used for jams
Other fruits
 These are the fruits which do not fall into any category given above.
 Cranberries, melons, grapes, etc.,
 They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing.

STORAGE OF FRUITS
 Hard fruits such apples should be stored in boxes
 Soft fruits such as strawberries, raspberries should be left in their own punnets.
 Stoned fruit are stored in a tray and must be individually placed so that any damaged fruit can be
discarded easily.
  Peaches and citrus fruits are left in the delivery tray only.
 Bananas should not be stored in cool places because their skin turns black.

STOCKS
The kitchen has to be well equipped for operations with ingredients in either cooked or semi cooked stage.
The mise-en-place, required for kitchen is plenty. Stocks are the flavourful liquids that form the backbone of
Western cookery. That is the reason they are termed as fond in French, which translates to 'foundation' or
'base'. Stocks are used in almost all the cuisines around the world including South-East Asia. Liquid is the
most essential ingredient used for any cooking. Over the years cooks realized that during cooking the nutrients
leach into the water, causing the loss of flavours as well as essential minerals and vitamins. The need thus
arose to use that liquid in one way or the other to retain the nutritional aspects of food. Some ancient cooks
used this flavourful liquid as a broth and called it soup or simply transformed it into a reduced smooth
finished liquid and called it sauce. Stocks give the entire body to a dish and stocks around the world have their
own distinctive tastes and flavours. For example, Indian cooking uses a stock called yakhni for its biryanis
and other dishes, whereas stock flavoured with seaweed is used in Japanese cooking.

STOCKS – DEFINITION
Stock can be simply defined as a liquid which has been simmered for a long time in order to extract flavours
from the ingredients used.
Stocks are thin liquids flavored by soluble extracts of meat, poultry, fish, and vegetables. It is a liquid in
which meat or meat bones, fish or fish bones and various vegetables have been cooked to extract flavor.
‘Fonds de cuisine’ is a kitchen stock.
Stocks are nutritious, strongly flavored liquids. They are important foundation liquids that they are used in the
preparation of various dishes such as soups, sauces, gravies, stews, curries, braising, rice and cold dishes. The
preparation of stocks, calls for understanding, care, and discerning taste. Long, slow simmering of food and
cold water used for stock (except for fish stock) is required to draw out the flavor – and nutrients into the
liquids. After cooking is properly stored for a day it ripens and gives a fuller flavor. To improve the taste of
Indian curries, pulaos, etc., it is important that stocks be used.

TYPES OF STOCK
There is four type of stock and they are:
1. WHITE STOCK (FOND BLANC)
White chicken and meat stocks are used for the preparation of soups, sauces, stews, gravies and court
bouillion. The bones and mirepoix are put in cold water and slowly brought to a boil. Its French name is fond
blanc.
Types of white stock
 White beef stock
 White mutton stock
 White veal stock
 White chicken stock

Recipe for White stock

Ingredients
Bones Cold water
Celery Mirepoix (diced) Onion, Carrot or parsnip
Leek Butter
Thyme Bouquet garni
Bay leaf
Methods of preparing all white stocks
1. Chop the bones and place it in a thick bottomed stock pot.
2. Add cold water and bring to boil.
3. If the scum is dirty, then blanch and wash off the bone, re-cover with cold water and re-boil.
4. Skim occasionally and simmer gently for around half an hour.
5. Now add mirepoix and bouquet garni (flavorings agents).
6. Simmer for two-four hours, skim and strain.

2. BROWN STOCK
Brown stocks are made with beef veal and poultry meat and bones. It is used for soups, braising, gravies,
curries, stews, and sauces. Its French name is fond burn.
Types of brown stock
 Brown beef stock
 Brown mutton stock
 Brown veal stock
 Brown game stock

Recipe for Brown Stock

Ingredients
Bones Cold water or remouillage
Celery Mirepoix (diced) Onion, Carrot or parsnip
Leek Tomato product
Thyme Bay leaf
Methods of preparing all brown stocks
1. Chop the bones, and brown well on all sides, either by frying and roasting.
2. Place the brown bones in a thick bottomed stock pot.
3. Add cold water, bring to boil and skim occasionally to remove the scum.
4. Fry the mirepoix till brown and add to the bones.
5. Add bouquet garni to the bones.
6. Simmer gently for stipulated time as per the bone used, skim occasionally, strain and store.
(For brown stocks, a few tomatoes and mushroom trimming may also be added to improve the flavor). The
raw bone and mirepoix are sautéed or roasted with fat or without fat until brown and then simmered in the
gentle heat for brown stock. But for white stock, raw bones, and other ingredients are kept in pot and simmer
in gentle heat.

3. FISH STOCK
Recipe for Fish Stock
Ingredients
Fish bones with heads Cold water
Mirepoix (diced) Onion
Celery Leek
Butter White wine (Chablis)
Bay leaf Parsley
Thyme

Methods of preparation of fish stock

1. Melt a migraine or butter in a thick bottomed pan
2. Add sliced onion, well-washed fish bones and other ingredients as a return in recipes.
3. Cover with lid and sweat (cook gently without coloring) for five minutes.
4. Add water and bring to boil
5. Skim and simmer for 20 to 25 minutes.
6. Then strain and store in a cold place.

4. VEGETABLE STOCK
Recipe for vegetable stock
Ingredients
 Coarsely chopped vegetables
 Mushrooms and mushroom stem
 Tomatoes
 Broccoli and broccoli stem
 Herbs
 Water
 Salt / pepper
Methods of preparing vegetable stocks
1. Put the vegetables in a large saucepan.
2. Add enough water to cover them with enough room to stir. The less water the stronger the stock.
3. Bring the ingredients to a boil. Reduce heat and leave to simmer for an hour to an hour and a half,
stirring occasionally.
4. If scum forms (which will depend on your vegetables) remove it periodically from the top as the stock
cooks by running a spoon across it.
5. Strain the stock over another pot or large bowl.
If you used carrots, you can puree the carrots with one cup of the stock. When smooth, pour the pureed carrot
mixture back into the stock. (optional)

Many chefs use ratios of the ingredients used in stock making.

Bones: 50%
Mirepoix: 10%
Water: 100%
Preparation Time for Stocks
Stocks Time
Fish 20 - 30 minutes
Vegetables 1 - 2 Hours
Chicken 4 - 6 Hours
Beef 6 - 8 Hours

CARE AND PRECAUTIONS IN STOCK MAKING

As the stock is an important ingredient in various dishes, care should be taken in the preparation as follows:
 The stock ingredients are simmered starting with cold water. This promotes the extraction of collagen,
which may be sealed in by hot water.
 All fat should be removed from bones at the outset, as the stock becomes very greasy and becomes rancid
soon.
 Marrow must be removed and put aside for use as a separate dish (marrow toast) or as garnish (petite
marmite-Soup)
 Stocks are simmered gently, with bubbles just breaking the surface, and not boiled. If allowed to boil, the
agitation and particles of fat cause emulsification to become milky or cloudy. If a stock is boiled, it will be
cloudy.
 Stocks turn cloudy, if boiled too rapidly and if a lid is used and not carefully strained and not skimmed
properly.
 Salt is usually not added to a stock, as this causes it to become too salty, since most stocks are reduced to
make soups and sauces.
 Bouquet garni should be tied to a handle of the stockpot. Cut large pieces of vegetables and add later on,
as it flavors the stock. If allowed to remain in the pot too long, the vegetables will begin to disintegrate,
discoloring the stock.
 Meat is added to stock before vegetables, and the “scum” that rises to the surface is skimmed off before
further ingredients are added.
 The fat can be removed after the stock is finished and cooled, as it floats, separates, and solidifies into
globs within the stock, and can be removed with ease.
 Stocks can be frozen and kept indefinitely but are better fresh.
 The scum should be discarded.
 For storing, the stock should be strained and liquid should be cooled. No fat should be allowed to remain
on the surface, as heat is prevented from escaping and may cause the stock to turn or become sour.
 Stock could be stored in a refrigerator or cold room.

REDUCTION & GLAZES

Stocks can be concentrated by boiling or simmering them to reduce them and evaporate part of the water. This
is called reduction or reducing.
A glaze is a stock that is reduced till it coats the back of a spoon. It is so concentrated that is solid and rubbery
when refrigerated. Glazes are used as flavorings in sauce making and in some meat, fish, poultry and even
vegetable preparations. Only small amounts are needed, as they are very concentrated. There are three types
of glazes:
1. Meat glaze or glace de viande made from brown stock.
2. Chicken glaze or glace de volaille made from chicken stock.
3. The fish glaze or glace de Poisson made from fish stock (sometimes called Fumet).
The cost, both in terms of money, material and time of making stocks in the kitchen has led to the widespread
use of concentrated convenience products known as bases. The maybe powders or pastes which are diluted
with water to make a flavored liquid similar to stocks. Nestle, Maggi, and Knorr are the leading international
manufacturers of these bases.
Glazes can be considered to be bases, and in fact, they are the original bases, used long before the modern
versions.
Bases vary greatly in quality. The best ones are composed mainly of meat extracts. These are perishable
products and need to be refrigerated. However, a lot of bases are primarily salt (an expensive way of buying
salt). Read the list of ingredients on the box or packet and avoid those, which list salt first!

Using Bases:
 Bases can be improved by simmering them with a little mirepoix, meat trimmings and bones. This
improves the taste and gives a `fresher’ and more natural flavor to the stock.
 Bases can be added to stocks to supplement their flavor and taste and reduce the cooking time.
 Bases are added to stocks to supplement them when only a little is on hand.
There is no substitute for a well-made stock. But it is also true that a good base may be better than a poorly
made stock.

Natural Clarification
A high quality stock has a clear clean appearance. This requires that it be clarified. Pouring the cooked stock
through a fine sieve is not the kind of clarification that mean here. It is the removal of the many minute
particles, which form, in the cooking process. Albumin is a protein complex found in muscles, blood, milk,
egg white, and many vegetable tissues, such as leeks. It is soluble only in cold water. Albumin is valued for its
property of clarification by coagulation (forming a mass) when exposed to heat. The slower the application of
heat, the better the removal of cloudiness from liquid. Bringing stock slowly to a boil gives the albumin time
to pass into the solution. As its proteins coagulate, they attract particles in the liquid. The action is similar to
that of a magnet. However, as with the magnet, when disturbed they will drop the particles. Cloudiness
normally is the result of stock being boiled for too long and fast over high heat. This extended boiling breaks
down the texture of the bone fibers. When this happens, the particles become blended and suspended in the
liquid. This makes it difficult, if not impossible, to clarify. A slight amount of cloudiness is normal in stock.
The lack of blood in the bones used in stock creates a lack of albumin. There is not sufficient protein to all the
particles.

Skimming
As the stock cooks and the albumin coagulates, fat and scum will rise to the top of the pot. It is important to
remove all of it. This removal is called skimming, carefully lifting fat and scum from the surface. The
mirepoix of vegetables is finely cut for the best flavour extraction. This and the aromatics float on the top of
the pot. This can make it difficult to skim properly. To make it easier to skim, add the mirepoix and the
aromatics after about ¼ of the cooking time has lapsed. The largest accumulation of fat and scum will occur in
the early cooking of the stock. Once the mirepoix and aromatics are added, do not skim unless necessary. Let
the stock cook undisturbed.

Simmering
This very simple operation is often misunderstood. Improper application of it generates most of the burned
stocks and sauces. Simmering is when liquid is hot enough to form small bubbles that rise from bottom of the
pan. The bubbles break, just below the top surface of the liquid. As they rise and break a slight turbulence
occurs. When the temperature is too high, this turbulence is too great. If the temperature is too low, there is
little or no movement in the liquid. Simmering, when correct, creates a slight roll in the liquid. Simmering is
important in the cooking of sauces, when the slight roll of the simmer is not present, the coarser particles and
sediments will settle on the bottom of the pan. This creates an insulating layer between the heat and the stock,
which will burn. When it burns, it imparts an unwanted burnt flavour to the stock. Too much action in the
liquid can harm stock. The heavy rolling action of a high boil will break up the scum and fat. This makes it
difficult to skim the stock. The fast rolling action also does not allow the albumin to gather the fine particles.
Improper placement of the pot on the fire can limit the simmering action and make it difficult to skim the
stock.

GENERAL USES STOCKS IN COOKING

 Stocks form the foundation for
- Soups                                         
- Sauces
- Stews                                           
- Gravies
- Braised dishes                             
- Cold food
 Stocks improvise taste in the food
 Stocks enrich the aroma of the food
 Stocks fortified with nutrients, so it is helping menu planning
 Stocks are important for the consistency of soup and sauces
 It helps in glazing the food and brought down the natural color of the food
 Stocks makes the food tenderizer and juicy
 Stocks make the food more palatable and rich
 Stocks has herbs and spices so it aid in digestion

SAUCES
Sauces are the next most important part of the French & continental cuisine. These sauces can be derived from
stocks by using different thickening agents. Sauces are capable of adding variety to the dishes by imparting
color, flavor, texture and even drama to a great extent. Sauces are of different types. They vary by way of the
basic ingredient used, color and consistency. These sauces are integral for plate presentations and add to the
overall improvement of the product.
A sauce is liquid, creamy or semi-solid food served on or used in preparing other foods. Sauces are not
normally consumed alone; they add flavor, moisture, and visual appeal to the final dish. The sauce is a French
word taken from the Latin “Salsus”, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest sauce recorded is Garum, the fish
sauce used by the Ancient Romans. Sauces may be used for savory dishes or for desserts. They can be
prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, or can be cooked
like béchamel and served warm or again cooked and served cold like apple sauce. Some sauces are industrial
inventions like Worcestershire sauce, HP sauce, or nowadays mostly bought ready-made like soy sauce or
ketchup, other are still freshly prepared by the cook. Sauces for salads are called salad dressing. Sauces made
by deglazing a pan are called pan sauces. A cook who specializes in making sauces is a saucier.

DEFINITION
Sauces are liquid or semi-liquid mixtures. A keen sense of smell, delicate sense of taste, a light, strong hand
for blending – all contribute to the perfect sauce. Long ago, Grimande de la Royere, philosopher and
gastronomer wrote: “The sauce is to culinary art, what grammar is to language”. A perfect sauce has a
colorful appearance, is glowing in its rich smoothness, its texture is that of velvet, and it has a definite taste. It
has natural flavor and complements the food it accompanies, rather than mask its taste.

THICKENING AGENTS
These are different ingredients added to give the thick consistency to a sauce. The different agents make each
sauce unique by way of its taste, color, consistency & flavor.
Roux
It is a fat and flour mixture, which are cooked together. It is cooked to various degrees, namely white, blond
or brown. Equal quantities of flour and butter and margarine are taken to prepare the different colored roux.
The colour acquired depends upon the degree of cooking of the flour and the color of the sauce depends upon
the liquid and roux used. While preparing the sauce, the boiling liquid should never be added to a hot roux as
it may become lumpy, a cold liquid to a hot roux or hot liquid to an old roux may be added to get a smooth
texture.
 Starch
Arrowroot, corn flour, fecule (potato starch), tapioca are used to thicken the sauce. A paste should be made of
cold liquid and starch and then stirred into boiling liquid and allowed to boil, till the starch is cooked. It
gelatinizes at 93°C. Starch contains no gluten and gives a clear sauce and thickens more as it cools.
Beurre Maine
It is chiefly used for fish sauces. Equal quantities of flour and butter are kneaded, and very little quantity is
added at a time to the boiling liquid and stirred well to form a smooth consistency.
Yolks of Eggs and Cream
It is a liaison, added as a finishing agent at the end of cooking. The product is never boiled when the liaison is
added, or it would curdle. The liaison is added to thicken delicate cream or veloute sauces or cream soups.
Yolks of eggs are used to prepare the mayonnaise by emulsifying with oil.
Blood
It is usually used for game cooking. It thickens the sauce and gives a particular flavor e.g. preparation of
Jugged Hare.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAUCE
Sauces may be classified in several ways.  Here is one system.
1. By serving temperature warm or cold
2. By flavor: blandness or piquancy
3. By acidity
4. By sweetness
5. By color
6. By base: neutral or meat.

Espagnole
Bechamel Hollandaise
Mother
Sauces
Veloute Mayonnaise
Preparatory Tomato

SAUCES Hard Butter

Special
/Other
Proprietory
Sauces Contemporary
 Tomato Ketchup, HP Sauce, Tobassco
Sauce, Worcestershire sauce, etc.,

In general, Sauce can be classified under two major heads as follows:

PREPARATORY SAUCE
Very much made in the kitchen by following a standard recipe and traditional guidelines.
Sauces which are prepared in kitchen by the chef and they are classified as below.

Mother Sauces:
There are six mother sauces in continental cuisine. The sauces are classified on different basis like
temperature (hot / warm/ cold) or nature (thickened / emulsified) of the sauce. These sauces are the foundation
sauces for other derivative sauces which are made from these basic sauces.
Preparing the basic mother sauces:
There are quite a variation in preparing the mother sauces which are seen in different provinces of Europe and
America. Here we will try to generalize a common recipe and method which are practiced in the hotels and in
reputed cruise liners. The sauces should be well seasoned before being served. All sauces which are hot must
be finished by applying butter on top to avoid the formation of a skin, called Vanner in French and has no
word in English.

Bechamel / White Sauce: 

White sauce or Bechamel sauce is more versatile for its neutral base. It is used to bind soufflés, croquettes,
soups, egg dishes and gratins and to coat many foods. The texture should be smooth and rich and the
consistency of double cream. The taste should be milky with no hint of raw flavor. This is invented by
Marquis Louise de béchamel, in the seventeenth century and probably gets its name from the inventor.
Method:
1. The milk is initially flavored with Onion Cloute/Pique, an onion wrapped with bay leaf and studded
with cloves. Sometimes an amount of finely chopped onion, which is sweated in butter added to milk
before adding the roux.
2. The Onion Cloute/Pique is to be removed after the milk comes to a boil and the flavor has infused
thoroughly. 
3. The proportion of milk: flour: butter = 20: 1:1.
4. Make sure cold milk is added to the freshly made roux to avoid lumps being formed.
5. The sauce is strained and coated with butter to avoid the formation of skin on top.
6. Season the sauce.
7. Serve hot or use this as a base to prepare other derivative sauces.
 Note:
 When cooking a large amount it’s advisable to cover and cook in a moderate oven (300 degree f) for 30 –
40 minutes.
 Stirring from time to time.
 Nutmeg is often, classically added as a flavoring.
 If the sauce is not to be used immediately, DOT it with butter. This butter will melt over the surface and
will prevent the sauce from skin formation.
 Alternatively, press directly the cling film against the surface to prevent the skin formation.

 Veloute Sauce: 
A Veloute sauce is often made from the liquid used in cooking the main ingredient, such as that used in
poaching fish and chicken or for veal, as in a Blanquette. Additional liquid is added to the blond roux at the
beginning to make a very thin sauce. Simmering for 15 minutes to 1 hour thickens the sauce and intensifies
the flavor. The long slow process of cooking gives it a velvety texture and consistency, hence the name
Veloute or Velvety. Stir the sauce frequently to prevent scorching and skim from time to time.
Method: 
1. White stock, made from poultry, veal or fish is thickened to prepare a basic Veloute sauce.
2. Hot stock is added to cold roux to make a thick paste and then it is added to the boiling stock.
3. Reduce to proper consistency and finished with a liaison of egg yolk and cream
4. Strained through a fine strainer.
5. Season the sauce.
6. Serve hot or use this as a base to prepare other derivative sauces.

Espagnole / Brown Sauce: 

 The most famous brown sauce, Espagnole, is made with a rich brown stock and a gently cooked brown roux.
Although rich sauce is robust, yet fine and well flavored. It is time consuming and requires skills. A brown
roux is tricky to make without scorching or separating. The sauce is intensified by adding fine original
Spanish ham and tomato puree, which add to the glossy brown color. Although it can be served by itself. It is
also the base of many rich, dark French sauce such as ‘Demi glaze’, ‘Sauce Robert’ and ‘Sauce Madira’. Now
a days many chefs use a last moment thickener like arrowroot or potato starch, which produces a lighter
sauce.
Method: 
1. The off cuts of meats along with bones of beef are sautéed with chopped tomatoes and tomato puree
along with flavoring vegetable and the roux until brown.
2. A good quality of brown stock is then added in which a Bouquet Garni of thyme, bay leaf and parsley is
put in.
3. It is simmered slowly removing the scum at regular intervals.
4. Reduce it to the preferred consistency and strain through a fine strainer.
5. Use this as a base to prepare Demi glaze and other derivative sauces.
6. Season the sauce and serve hot.
Note: Demi Glaze is prepared from equal amount of Espagnole and brown stock mixed together and reduced
to half. Generally, Madeira or other red wines are added for the desired flavor.

Tomato Sauce:
Tomato sauce is one of the most popular hot sauces that find a good accompaniment with meats, poultry and
variety of pasta dishes.
 Method:
1. It is made by sautéing onions and garlic.
2. The fat is oil along with bacon lards along with herbs like bay leaf, basil, and parsley.
3. Tomato and tomato products like tomato puree, tomato juice and plum tomatoes are used for the sauce.
4. Sometimes it is thickened by roux or otherwise gets its own thickening from the ingredients for the
preferred consistency.
5. The sauce is slowly simmered until the right consistency and aroma and strained before use.
6. Season the sauce and serve hot or use this as a base to prepare other derivative sauces.

Emulsified Sauces:
An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of tiny droplets of one liquid suspended in another to form a
homogeneous mixture.
The emulsified sauce includes ingredients most often egg or egg yolk and a fat such as butter or oil which
normally do not form a stable suspension of mixture. By vigorous beating or shaking, the ingredients can be
emulsified to form a smooth sauce in stable suspension. The most important emulsified sauce are Hollandaise,
a warm sauce and Mayonnaise a cold sauce. Bearnaise is made in the same way as Hollandaise, but is
flavored with a reduction of vinegar, shallots and tarragon which gives its characteristic sweet tangy flavor.
Quality of all these sauces depend on using the best egg and butter or oil. Emulsified sauce is famous for
being difficult because they separate or curdle so easily.
Note:
 Emulsion is a process of mixing in two immiscible liquids by force. The lecithin present in egg yolk helps
in the emulsifying process in binding. Any powdery substance, like mustard in mayonnaise will tend to
absorb the liquid and help in the emulsion.
 Around 125 – 150 ml of fat per yolk is absorbed by 1 egg yolk in both the emulsified sauces.
 If the sauce curdles, add vinegar or a spoon of boiling water and whisk. If still curdled, start with a fresh
egg and add the curdled mixture slowly in a stream till it forms the emulsion.
 All ingredients should be at room temperature.
 Preferably use pasteurized egg yolk as raw egg can be harmful with pathogens.

Clarifying Butter:
Clarified butter is a way of separating the milky fat solids (whey) from the pure butter fat. Once clarified it
can be served as a simple sauce, used for frying or to help to stabilize sauce like Hollandaise and Bearnaise.
Method:
 Put the butter in a small pan and melt over a low heat; do not allow the butter to boil.
 Remove the pan the heat and tilt the pan slightly using a flat spoon.
 Skim off any foam from the surface. Pour into a small bowl.
 Leaving the milky solids behind. Cool, if recipe directs.

Hollandaise Sauce:  
An emulsified sauce made from butter and egg yolk. Hollandaise and its variations are opaque, but the sauce
should have a luster and not appear oily. They should have a smooth texture. A grainy texture indicates over
cooking of the egg yolks.  It should have light consistency and at times almost appears frothy. A very popular
sauce served with poached eggs, and steaks in its original form or as derivatives.
Method:
1. Vinegar is reduced with white wine, chopped shallots and peppercorn.
2. Add the reduced vinegar to the egg yolk and mix it well and cook it on a double boiler to a stage when it
is creamy and does not smell raw.
3. Clarify butter by melting it over low heat and straining all the salt that settles at the bottom.
4. Add the melted clarified butter drop by drop on the egg yolk, ensuring both are almost at the same
temperature.
5. Whisk until a thick emulsion is formed. Add few drops of vinegar to the emulsion if it is too hard to
whish in the butter. Finish with lemon juice.
6. Season the sauce and hold it at room temperature and serve warm.   

Points to be Remember:
Faults:
 Scrambled appearance of sauce due to coagulation, shrinking and hardening of egg protein at around 550C
(1580F), so care must be taken to:
1. Ensure that egg yolk do not become too hot when whisking to ribbon stage over the double boiler.
2. Prevent the melted butter over heating before adding to the egg yolk.
3. Prevent the sauce from overheating prior to service.
 Curdled sauce which may be the result of the following reasons:
 1. Insufficient agitation during mixing
2. Too much mechanical agitation which breaks down the protective layer of emulsifying agent.
3. Adding melted butter too quickly to the egg mixture.
4. Using in correct formula.
5. Using egg yolks which lack sufficient emulsifying agent e.g. stale egg yolks.
 To overcome the above mentioned points, care must be taken to:
1. Ensure that the melted butter is not added too quickly to the to the egg yolks.
2. Whisking briskly when adding the melted butter.
3. Prepare sauce just before the service.
4. Ensure fresh eggs are used.
 Note:
Double boiler is cooking on a boiling water bath for even heating with a controlled temperature.
Care should be taken while cooking the egg yolk because excess heat may coagulate the yolk and make it into
a scrambled egg. Remove out of heat as and when required.

Rectifications:
 Place a small amount of boiling water into a clean bowl. Gradually whisk the curdled     mixture on to the
water.
 Place fresh egg yolks into a clean bowl. Gradually whisk in the curdled mixture on to the yolk, whisk
gently over a bain-marie. 

Mayonnaise Sauce: 
An emulsified sauce made from egg yolk and oil. This delicious sauce is used in salads, sandwiches and as a
part of other sauces. It can be varied by using different oils, herbs and other flavorings. Mayonnaise can also
be made in a blender, food processer or with an electric mixer. Make sauce that all the ingredients are in room
temperature. If making by hand, set the bowl on a towel to stop it sliding around.
Remember, mayonnaise is made with raw egg yolk which can harbor ‘Salmonella’ bacteria. Pregnant women,
children and the elderly should avoid under cooked or raw eggs.
Method:
1. Mix egg yolk with mustard in a bowl.
2. Add oil drop by drop whisking it continuously.
3. If the emulsion becomes too tight, add vinegar to thin it down.
4. Whisk until a stabilized emulsion is formed.
5. Serve cold as a sauce, dressing or as the base for other derivative sauces.

Points to remember
 Faults:
Unstable emulsion caused due to-
 When the ingredients have been at too low a temperature, thus preventing the emulsifying agents from
coating the oil successfully.
 By using stale egg yolks which consequently provide insufficient agent.
 By inadequate whisking when adding oil to the egg yolks, thus preventing even distribution of oil into
egg.
 By adding oil too quickly in the initial stages of preparations, thus prevent a thorough mixing of yolks and
oil resulting in the sauce separations.
 By using incorrect formula balance.
How to correct a curdled Mayonnaise Sauce?
Mix the unstable emulsion on to a fresh egg yolk or on to a few drops of boiling water. Use a clean bowl and
proceed as for making Mayonnaise.

HARD BUTTER SAUCE / BEURRE COMPOSE

This preparations are used to accompany a variety of grilled meat or fish dishes. Also it adds interest and
flavor to various products .They are easily prepared in advance and stored refrigerated in readiness for use.
Cream butter until soft, combine with flavorings and seasonings to taste. Roll in dampened grease proof paper
to cylindrical shape, approximately 2 ½ cm wide. Store refrigerated but not frozen.
It may be utilized in the following way-
1. Add to sauce to enhance flavor.
2. In the preparation of a culinary product e.g. snails in garlic butter.
3. Place on a hot food for service e.g. grilled steak.
4. Place in a sauce boat of iced water to keep the butter solid in hot atmosphere.

Examples of Compound / Hard Butter Sauce

Anchovy Butter:           Add anchovy essence /paste / pounded to butter.
Garlic Butter:               Chopped garlic, parsley, pinch of pepper combined with butter.
Basil Butter:                 Add a fine puree of fresh basil leaves and a little lemon juice with butter.
Colbert Butter:             Mix chopped tarragon and meat glaze in to Maître d’hôtel butter.
Maître d’hôtel Butter:  Add chopped parsley, seasonings and lime juice to butter.
Ravigote Butter:            Pound blanched herbs and shallots, pass through a sieve and add to soften
butter.
Bercy Butter:                    Reduce chopped shallots in wine, add butter, bone marrow, chopped  parsley
and lemon juice.
Cray fish Butter:              Pulverize crayfish, add butter and pass through a sieve.
Red wine Butter:              Reduce shallots in red wine and add to butter with seasonings, lemon juice and
chopped parsley.
Nutty Butter:                   Add finely chopped peanuts, the slices of butter may be dipped in chopped nuts.

HOT BUTTER SAUCE / BEURRE CHAUD:

Hot butter sauces are often used with vegetables, fish, and meat offal’s and poultry dishes. They can be served
to complete a dish or as an accompaniment e.g. Poisson Meuniere, beurre meuniere to complete beurre fondue
to accompany asparagus etc.

Examples of Hot Butter Sauce:

Beurre Noisette:
Heat butter until brown and pour over the food on the dish, if desired a little lemon juice may be added. This
butter is frequently used in conjunction with jus lie for shallow fried food.
Beurre Noire:
Heat butter until it begins colour brown, add a few drops of vinegar and pour over the food. Capers and
chopped parsley may be added at the last moment.
Beurre Blanc:
 Cook chopped shallots in a little water, gradually adding the juice of lemon as it evaporates. Whisk butter in
small pieces at a time, keeping the pan in a bain-marie of water until the lemon sauce become white and
frothy. Serve at once and do not allow to become too warm.
Beurre Rouge:  Make as Beurre Blanc by using red wine.
Beurre Fondue:  Heat butter until warm and just melted, add lemon juice and served immediately.
Beurre Meuniere:  As for Beurre Noisette garnish with chopped parsley.
Sauce au Beurre:
Add flour to melted butter then boiling salted water to make a smooth sauce. Add a liaison of egg yolk, cream
and lemon juice, allow to thicken and finish with plenty of butter added in pieces at the last moment. Served
with poached fish, asparagus etc.

Other Sauces, Non-derivative Sauces and Gravies:

Except the above mentioned sauces there are many sauces which are prepared independently. They are as
follows-
 Jus lie                                              Thickened gravy.
 Sauce Kari                                       Curry sauce.
 Sauce Portugaise                             Sauce Portuguese.
 Sauce Brigade                                  Orange flavored sauce.
 Sauce Homard                                  Lobster sauce.
 Sauce Bolognaise                             Savory meat sauce.
 Sauce Pommes                                 Apple sauce.
 Sauce Pain                                        Bread sauce.
 Sauce Menthe                                   Mint sauce.

CONTEMPORARY SAUCES: 
 The broad category of contemporary sauces includes beurre blanc, coulis, compound butters and a variety of
miscellaneous sauces, such as relishes, salsas and compotes. A contemporary sauce means that these sauces
compliment the dish by enhancing the flavor and of the dish in total. They are prepared by the chefs in the
kitchen with a view that there particular flavor matches best with the basic flavor of the dish served. They are
not considered as mother sauces as they are not the base for other derivative sauces but sometimes act as good
as a mother sauce. The primary factors distinguishing contemporary sauces from the grand sauces are the
following-
 They usually take less time to prepare.
 They are more likely to be specifically tailored to be a given food or technique.
 They have a lighter color, texture and flavor than some of the grand sauces.
 They are more likely to be thickened and finished using emulsions, modified starches or reduction and less
likely to contain roux.
 One of the most popular sauces in this category is Pesto Sauce, with an Italian origin, generally made from
pine kernels, basil, olive oil, garlic, sea salt, black pepper and Parmesan. Originally all these are pounded in a
mortar and pestle and then preserved in olive oil for future use.
Mint Sauce, the classical accompaniment of roast lamb is made by making a gastric out of reduced vinegar
and sugar. Freshly chopped mint is added in good quantity for the flavor and served immediately.
The authentic accompaniment of roast pork, Apple Sauce, is made by cooking peeled apples with cinnamon
sticks along with sugar and then making it to a paste. The lovely combination of cinnamon with apples makes
a gorgeous combination with the pork.
Similarly for roast chicken an acceptable accompaniment is Bread Sauce, made by cooking the fresh bread
crumbs without crust in milk along with cloves. Once strained to a smooth texture, a dip of the roast chicken
in this sauce can be a mouthwatering experience.
Some of the popular contemporary sauces are: 
 Roasted Tomato Coulis.
 Tomatillo Salsa Verde.
 Red Pepper and corn relish.
 Rosemary Oil.
 Basil Oil.
 Chemichurri sauce.
 Red onion marmalade.
 
PROPRIETARY SAUCES
Sauces which can only be purchased from the market and cannot be reproduced in the kitchen, for the fact that
its recipe is hidden and safeguarded by the patented family or company. These sauces are procured locally or
imported, have unique taste and are multipurpose in use.
Every proprietary sauce has a history behind it and a secret recipe or ingredient which is known by its
inventor or the family of the inventor or the patenting company only and is sold by the patent company only
under its label name following the food laws in bottles.
There are many famous proprietary sauces which brings extra taste to the dish when added and have become a
part of dining room table along with other seasonings.

Uses of proprietary sauce

As said before proprietary sauces are multipurpose in use, they can be used as accompaniments with burgers
or sandwiches, steak sauce, seasoning in Asian cuisine, Table sauce, etc. Below are some example of famous
proprietary sauces.
Famous Proprietary Sauce.
1)     Ketchup
The word ketchup is derived for the Malay word “Ketjap” which means “brine
solution for pickling fishes”. The famous of all ketchup is Tomato ketchup
which is sold under many brand names such as Maggie, Heinz, Del Monte,
Chings, etc. The main ingredients of tomato ketchup is tomato paste, garlic
powder, onion powder, spices, water, salt and vinegar. There are other popular
ketchups which is made from Mushroom, Jackfruit, Pineapple, etc.
The Heinz tomato ketchup was first produced in 1869 in Pittsburg by its founder Henry John Heinz, this
ketchup is served with omelets, fried fish, potato fries, poached dish, etc. No artificial preservatives colorings
or emulsifiers are added to this Ketchup.

2)     HP Sauce
One of the popular sauces served with snacks such as chips, bacon, sandwich,
sausages, jacket potato, baked beans, etc. HP is a brown sauce which was first
produced in 1899 by Danone Group under the name of HP foods Ltd. This sauce is
100 percent natural. No artificial color. No artificial preservatives. No artificial
flavors, low in fat and suitable for vegetarians. Its main Ingredients are malt
vinegar, tomatoes, molasses, spirit vinegar, sugar, dates, salt, corn flour, rye flour,
tamarinds, soy sauce, spices and onion extract.

3)     Tabasco Sauce

First produce by Edmund McIlhenny in the year 1868 at Avery Island,
Louisiana, the sauce is still produced in its same authentic way by its patenting
company McIlhenny Co. USA. This sauce is made from Red peppers and
vinegar. Tabasco sauce has quite a history behind it, from obtaining the peppers
from a traveler to first selling the sauce in discarded cologne bottles with
handmade labels.
4)     Worcestershire or LP Sauce
Originally called as Worcester sauce. Though this sauce was first
made in UK by John Lea and William Perrins and later patented by
them, the recipe of this sauce originally comes from Bengal, a state in
India. It is said the recipe was given to two chemist John Lea and
William Perrins by Lord Marcus Sandys who was an ex-Governor of
Bengal. Later on John and William bought the recipe from Lord
Marcus and in 1838 first LP sauce was launched. The main
ingredients of this sauce is as follows. Malt Vinegar, Spirit Vinegar,
Molasses, Sugar, Salt, Anchovies, Tamarinds, Shallots or Onions, Garlic, Spices and Flavoring.
The first step is to lightly crush the British onions, French garlic and Danish shallots. These are then stored
and aged in barrels of malt vinegar. Once they are sufficiently matured, they are transferred to huge vats and
mixed with Spanish salted anchovies, black tamarinds from Calcutta, red hot chilies from China, cloves from
Madagascar and black strap molasses from the Caribbean. The process of mixing, stirring and pumping
continues until the sauce is ready, at which point it is strained and bottled. It takes up to two years to make a
bottle of Lea & Perrins Worcestershire Sauce.
 
5. Soya Sauce
One of the most popular proprietary sauces is Soya Sauce, which has been used in Oriental cuisine for more
than 2500 years. There are generally two varieties of soya sauce, dark and light. The darker version is used in
the preparation and the lighter version is used as a seasoning.

Other than this there are other famous proprietary sauce such as English Mustard sauce, French Mustard
sauce, Chili sauce, Barbecue sauce, Oyster Sauce, Fish Sauce, etc.

USE OF SAUCE:
The function of the sauce is to add flavor to the dish which is compatible with the ingredients. Sometimes the
color is in contrast to the main item thus giving a contrasting color effect, thus elevating the presentation style
of the dish. It is an excellent accompaniment of dishes which complements the taste and flavor thus elevating
the overall nature of the dish.
The function of the Sauce in Culinary work
 Sometimes sauces are used to add a contrast in taste to another food. Apple sauce with fresh roast pork
serves the same purpose. Broadly speaking any condiment or mixture of food, which serves to contrast
with or compliment another food, can be termed a sauce.  In this broad sense, a peanut butter and jelly
mixture would be a sauce to a piece of bread if they were served together.
 
 Some sauces are used to add sharpness or tanginess to bland food. A remoulade sauce served with
shrimp is an example of a piquant sauce.
 
 Sauces may add to the appearance of food, sometimes as a coating which is poured or brushed over the
food to give a pleasing appearance to an otherwise uninteresting item. the chaud-froid sauce made with
cream or mayonnaise and gelatin is used to coat various food items.
 
 Sauces such as barbeque sauce are used to modify the original flavor of food, blending the sauce flavor
with the flavor of the food.
 
 Some sauces are used to disguise or mask the original flavor of the food. As the French use the
word `mask’ in regard to sauces, masking a food with jelly or sauce is to completely cover it physically
hiding its appearance. Masking does not change the true flavor of the food.
 Sauces should never be used to change the flavor of food material, only to enhance or to compliment the
flavor of the food.
 Salad dressings such as French dressing and mayonnaise could also in this sense be considered sauces.
However, sauces are usually considered those mixtures served with meats, entrees, desserts, and other
major foods as a compliment or contrast to their flavor.
 
General faults in sauce production
1. Lumpiness: This may be caused by the following:
 Roux is too dry when liquid is added.
 Adding liquid too quickly and not stirring continuously.
 Incorrect temperature of roux and liquid. One should be hot and others should be cold.
 Formation of the skin when the sauce comes in contact with air and becomes dry. This can be prevented
by putting a film of melted butter on the surface of the sauce or by using a greased paper.
 By allowing the sauce to congeal on the sides of the cooking vessel which later could be stirred into the
sauce.
2. Poor gloss: This is caused by insufficient cooking of the sauce or using a sauce which has not been
passed, tammied or liquidized. High gloss is achieved by preparing the sauce correctly and added by the
addition of butter just prior to service, called ‘mounting with butter’ or ‘monster au beurre’
3. Incorrect consistency: This is the result of incorrect formula balance. Over and undercooking is
ultimately lead to an incorrect consistency.
4. Greasiness: Too much fat in roux or failure to skim off surface grease as it rises. The use of greasy stock
may cause this fault.
5. Poor color: Incorrect cooking of the roux in the early stage, using dirty cooking vessel or utensils may
cause poor color.
6. Raw starch flavor: This causes due to the insufficient cooking of starch. Starch needs to reach to boiling
point and simmered it for a further period to avoid for a raw starch flavor.
7. Bitterness: This is caused by over-browning or burning of the roux.
 
 Importance of Sauces in Food Preparation
 Enhances flavor.
 Some sauces help in digestion, e.g. mint sauce, apple sauce with roast pork.
 It gives moistness to the food, e.g. white sauce adds creaminess to firm and dry food.
 Adds color to the food. Hollandaise sauce served on a vegetable adds colour. Tomato sauce goes with Fish
a l‘orly.
 Served as an accompaniment, sometimes gives a contrasting taste to another food, e.g. cranberry sauce
with roast turkey.
 Sometimes gives the name to the dish. E.g. Madeira wine when added to brown sauce it is called Sauce
Madeira.
 Enhances the nutritional value of the dish.
 Dress and complements the food that needs some additional quality and makes the food more palatable.
 Gives tartness and contrast or balances a bland food.
Gravy
Gravy on the other hand takes its characteristic flavour from the fat and juices (drippings) of a roasted piece of
meat. Once the roast is done and removed from the pan, skim off the majority of the fat. Place the roasting
pan on the stove on medium heat. Sprinkle or dust with all-purpose flour and mix well to create what is
known as  roux. Add hot vegetable water or broth and simmer until gravy is smooth in texture and there is no
longer an uncooked flour taste. Season with salt and pepper and you have the perfect gravy.
Tip: Today there are many commercially prepared sauce and gravy mixes available in powder and liquid form
your local grocer. These will work fine in a pinch, but there is nothing better than preparing your own gravy
or sauce derivation.
Gravy is made from pan juices, too, but more importantly, relies on the thickening power of flour or
cornstarch. In this method, we’ll be using flour.
Gravy can be lean because the pan juices, which contain fat, can be nearly completely de-fatted in a short
time. Even if pan juices can be chilled 5 to 15 minutes in a measuring cup, fat will be quite visible as a yellow
layer hanging over the remaining liquid. Depending on what you’ve roasted, you might end up with more fat
than juice, as with duck.
To make gravy: After roasting a turkey or piece of meat, scrape everything that’s in the pan into a glass 2-
cup measuring cup and refrigerate 5 to 15 minutes. Spoon off the golden layer of fat. A bulb baster will suck it
up easily.
After the fat is gone, add tap water until you’ve got 1 1/2 to 2 cups, and pour it all into a medium-sized pot.
Bring to a boil, uncovered. Boil until nearly half of it cooks away. Dissolve 3 tablespoons flour in 3
tablespoons cold water until a smooth paste forms. Slowly pour and stir the flour paste, a little at a time, into
the boiling juices until gravy becomes as thick.

SOUPS
INTRODUCTION
Soup is a replenishing, aromatized and a complete meal. Soups play a very important role on the menu and are
served as appetizer to stimulate the appetite for the rest of the heavier foods to follow, soups are served as a
second course after the serving of hors d’oeuvres, if hors d’oeuvres is not served then the soups are served as
a first course. They are nutritious tasty and are capable of giving good health. They can be of different types
based on the major ingredients and its consistency. The kitchens of restaurants prepare soups and hand over to
the steward for guest service. The old philosophy – ‘Hot soups to be served piping hot and cold soups to be
served cold’, should be followed by all the staff.

Chefs can create magic by serving the soups in the right bowls and by the addition of proper garnishes. These
garnishes are capable of adding a lot of visual appeal to the soup. For example croutons – when added to
tomato soups introduce a different texture and also break the monotony created by adding a different color. In
any case the taste cannot be compromised, any dish is first relished by the eyes of the connoisseur and later
tasted, which does not suggest that only visual appeal matters.

DEFINITION
Soup, according to the dictionary, is a liquid food derived from meat, poultry, fish, or vegetables. Most of
these soups, no matter what their final ingredients may be, are completely based on stock, thus, the quality of
the soup depends on the quality of the stock used in the preparation of the soup. Hot soups are characterized
by boiling solid ingredients in liquids in a pot until the flavors are extracted, forming a broth.

This is just a definition and there is no hard fast rule that every preparation has to be in a same way each time,
what matter most is the techniques, ingredients and of course the taste.
The word soup comes from French word “Soupe” (soup, broth), which further comes from Latin word’
Suppa” (bread soaked in broth). The origin of soup dates back to about 6000 BC. First commercial soup was
consumed in France in the 16th century.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS

SOUPS

THIC INTERNATION
THIN COLD
K AL

Passed Unpassed Cream Veloute

Puree Bisque
Broth Bouillons

Consomme Chowder

CHEF ESCOFFIER’S CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS

 Clear Soup
 Purees
 Coulis
 Bisques
 Veloute
 Cream Soup
 Special Soup
 Vegetable Soup
 National Soup/Foreign Soup

MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF SOUPS

Soups can be divided into three basic categories namely Thick Soups & Thin Soup which is further divided in
to Passed Soup, Unpassed Soup and Cold Soup & International Soup which are basically special and famous
or national soup from various countries.
1) Thin Soup
Thin soups are all based on a clear, unthicken broth or stock. They may be served plain or garnished with a
variety of vegetables and meats.
Thin soup is further divided into two categories i.e. Passed or Clear Soup and Unpassed Soup
Passed or Clear Soup
It as soup which is basically strained after preparation with the help of a strainer or a muslin cloth the
specialty of this soup is that it is simple, clear, transparent, flavorful and without any solid ingredients. This
can be made from Poultry, Beef, Veal and Vegetables, one of the famous example of passed soup
is Consommé
Consommé
This is concentrated, thin, clear soup made from meat, poultry or fish. The word has the same origin as
consummate, meaning to bring to completion or to perfection. A consommé is cooked long enough for most of
the ingredients to be extracted into the liquid. In the most general sense, consommé is a meat, poultry or fish
stock, which has gone through a special clarification process, served hot or cold.

Unpassed Soup
The properties of this soup is same as of clear soup except for this is not strained and has solid ingredients in
it. The preparation method is same and can be prepared from Beef, Veal, Poultry and Vegetables; example for
unpassed soup is Broths and Bouillons
Broths and Bouillons
The term broth and bouillon can be used interchangeably. Broths are among the simplest soups to prepare.
Normally, their flavor comes from long simmering of a variety of ingredients together in one pot. An
assortment of separately cooked foods may be added at various times during cooking requirements of the
individual items. All the ingredients should finish cooking at the same time.

2) Thick Soup
Unlike thin soups, thick soups are opaque rather than transparent. They are thickened either by adding
a thickening agent, such as a roux, or by puréeing one or more of their ingredients to provide a heavier
consistency. The difference between thick soup and unpassed soup is that thick soup is viscous in nature.
Thick soups are further classified depending upon the thickening agents used.

Cream Soup
This soup is prepared from the puree of vegetables, meat, fish or poultry, the name cream soup is usually
given after the main ingredients example Creme de Tomate, which is a cream soup made from Tomato.
Cream soups are thickened with roux, beurre manié, liaison, or other thickening agents, plus milk and/or
cream.
They are similar to velouté and béchamel sauces; in fact, they may be made by diluting and flavoring either of
these two leading sauces. Milk is sometimes used to dilute the sauce in order to get the correct consistency for
sauce.
Quality Standards for Cream Soup
 Thickness- About the consistency of heavy cream. Not too thick.
 Texture- Smooth; no graininess or lumps (except garnish, of course).
 Taste- Distinct flavor of the main ingredient (asparagus in cream of asparagus, etc.).
 No starchy taste from uncooked roux.

Curdling of Cream Soup

Curdling is a common problem with cream soup as it made with cream or milk or both, the cause behind
curdling of the soup can be either the acidity content of many soup ingredients like tomato or heat of cooking
can also be the cause of it.
Roux and other starch thickeners are used to stabilize milk and cream in order to avoid curdling while making
a sauce but soups are relatively thin as compared with sauce and contain less amount of starch, so the fear of
curdling is always there, therefore precaution should be taken to avoid this.
Following guidelines should be taken to prevent curdling of the sauce-
 Do not combine milk and simmering soup, stock without the presence of roux or other starch. Do one of
the following: 
 Thicken the stock before adding milk.
 Thicken the milk before adding it to the soup.
 Do not add cold milk or cream to simmering soup. Do one of the following:
 Heat the milk in a separate saucepan.
 Temper the milk by gradually adding some of the hot soup to it. Then add it to the rest of the soup.
 Do not boil soups after milk or cream is added.

Veloute Soup
The French word veloute translated into English means velvety.  This describes the finished texture and
appearance of the soup.  The principal thickening element is a blond roux or a veloute sauce, which may be
flavored using different stock bases according to requirements.  
When preparing meat, poultry, or fish velouté the predominant flavor is determined by the stock
used.  Alternatively when producing aqueous vegetable veloute soups the flavor of the main vegetable
predominates.
In order to achieve the velvety finish required the liaison of egg yolks and cream is added just before
service.  Once this has been added the soup must not be boiled again otherwise it will take on a curdled
appearance, a result of egg yolk coagulation.

Puree Soup
Purée soups are made by simmering dried or fresh vegetables, especially high-starch vegetables, in stock or
water, then puréeing the soup. Purées are normally based on starchy ingredients. They may be made from
dried legumes (such as split pea soup) or from fresh vegetables with a starchy ingredient, such as potatoes or
rice, added. Purées may or may not contain milk or cream. Purees are relatively easy to prepare. Purée soups
are not as smooth and refined as cream soups but are heartier and coarser in texture and character. Techniques
vary greatly depending on the ingredients and the desired result.

Chowder Soup
Chowders are chunky, hearty soups made from fish, shellfish, and/or vegetables so full of good things they
sometimes are more like stews than soups. Many types of chowder are simply cream soups or purée soups that
are not puréed but left chunky. Like other specialty regional soups, chowders resist categorization. However,
most of them are based on fish or shellfish or vegetables, and most contain potatoes and milk or cream.
Chowder soups originated from America. The name is the corruption of the French word ‘Chaudiere’ means a
heavy pot used by farmers and fishermen to cook soups and stews.
The best known French Chowder is ‘Bouillabaisse’. It is more like a stew which is an American specialty
made with meat, fish, and vegetables along with milk, pork belly, tomato concasse and seasonings. Chowder
may be thickened with beurre manie and crackers are added prior to the service of this soup.

Bisques Soup
Bisque (bisk) is a cream soup made with shellfish. At one time, bisques were thickened with rice, but today
they are more frequently thickened with roux. Bisques are made basically like other cream soups, but they
seem more complex because of the handling of the shellfish and the variety of flavoring ingredients often
used. Expensive to prepare and rich in taste, they are considered luxury soups. The term bisque has come to
be used for a great variety of soups, primarily because the word sounds nice. Bisque is generally used for
shellfish soups but nevertheless, you will also see the word bisque applied to many of the vegetable purée
soups and cream soups. 
Bisques may be defined as thickened, passed, classical seafood soups prepared from a base of fish stock
flavored with selected shellfish and mirepoix.  They are enhanced with wine, brandy and thickened with
starch usually in the form of rice.  Due to the delicacy of their flavor and the high cost of production bisques
are best suited to service at dinner.
Linguists say the most likely origin of the word bisque is Biscay, the name of the bay off the coast of
southwestern France and northwestern Spain. It is sometimes said the word comes from biscuit, because the
soup was once thickened by dried bread, but language experts say there is no evidence for this origin.

3) Cold Soup
Cold soups are those soups which include the natural gelatin’s jellies to make meat stocks or by addition of
gelatin powder or those that are thickened with a starch or puree.
Cold consommé madrilène is popular cold soup.
Vichyssoise is a cold soup and a rich cream of potato soup and garnish with chopped chives.
Andalouse gazpacho is a refreshing tomato and cucumber soup with a garnish of thin strips of pimentos,
cumin seeds for flavor accompanied with croutons.

4) National/Special Soup (International)

Special soups are those that are made with unusual ingredients and are prepared by a distinctive method. So
they are termed as National Soups. There are numerous varieties of international soups such as cold, hot, thin
or thick etc. international soups are those soups which are originated from the different places and locality
within the different countries. These soups are basically having a great tradition and that’s why they are
known by their country. They are placed in a different category also their names should appear on the menu in
the language of the country of its origins as they have different origins.
Some of famous international soups are below
Soup Name Country Name
Minestrone Italy
Green Turtle Soup England
French Onion Soup France
Petite Marmite France
Scotch Broth Scotland
Mulligatawny India
Gazpacho Spain
Manhattan Clam Chowder America
Camaro Brazil
Laberkroedel Germany
Paprika Hungary
Bortsch Polonais Poland
Hotch Pot Flamanda Belgium
Cock-a-Leekie Scotland
Creole New Orleans
Mock Turtule Soup U.S.A.
Boillabaisse a La Provencale France
Chicken Broth England
Busecca Italy
Olla Podrida Spain
Oxtail Soup England
Vichyssoise (cold) U.S.A.
 Zuppa Pa Vese Italy

SPECIAL POINTS FOR THE SERVICE AND PREPARATION

 First-class, clean, strong and flavourful stock should be used, as it would help in producing good quality
soup.
 If there is a heavy entrée, the soup should be thin or light.
 If heavy soup is served, the portion should be small.
 The soups should not in any way be filling or consist of food particles that require much chewing
 Garnish should be small and dainty, so that they can be picked up easily by soup-spoon.
 Soups should be always moderately seasoned.
 Serve hot soups; piping hot, and cold soups; very cold.
 A little sugar should be added to tone the acidity of the soup, before mixing cream as it prevents curdling.
 Consommé should be amber in colour (onions halved and browned on hot plate are added to the soup for
colour)
 Accompaniments of the soups should be of a crisp character, e.g. Melba toast, various crackers, bread
sticks, cheese croutons, bread rolls etc.
 Entrée portions of one liter of soup yields five portions.

SERVICE OF SOUP
 Standard Portion Sizes
 Appetizer portion: 6 to 8 oz (200 to 250 mL)
 Main course portion: 10 to 12 oz (300 to 350 mL)
 Temperature- Serve hot soups hot, in hot cups or bowls and serve cold soups cold, in chilled bowls or
even nested in a larger bowl of crushed ice.

GARNISH
Soup garnishes may be divided into three groups.
 Garnishes in the soup
 Toppings
 Accompaniments

Garnishes in the soup

Major ingredients, such as the vegetables in clear vegetable soup, are often considered garnishes. This group
of garnishes also includes meats, poultry, seafood, pasta products, and grains such as barley or rice. They are
treated as part of the preparation or recipe itself, not as something added on.
Consommés are generally named after their garnish, such as consommé brunoise, which contains vegetables
cut into brunoise shape [1⁄8-inch (3-mm) dice].
Vegetable cream soups are usually garnished with carefully cut pieces of the vegetable from which they are
made. An elegant way to serve soup with a solid garnish is to arrange the garnish attractively in the bottom of
a heated soup plate. This plate is set before the diner, and then the soup is ladled from a tureen by the dining
room staff.

Toppings
Clear soups are generally served without toppings to let the attractiveness of the clear broth and the carefully
cut vegetables speak for themselves. Occasional exceptions are toppings of chopped parsley or chives.
Thick soups, especially those that are all one color, are often decorated with a topping. Toppings should be
placed on the soup just before service so they won’t sink or lose their fresh appearance. Their flavors must be
appropriate to the soup. Do not overdo soup toppings. The food should be attractive in itself.
Topping suggestions for thick soups include the following: fresh herbs (parsley, chives), chopped croutons,
fine julienne of vegetables, grated parmesan cheese, sliced almonds, toasted crumbled bacon, grated cheese
paprika, sieved egg yolks, flavored butter, chopped or diced egg white, flavored oil, fried herbs, such as
parsley, sage, chervil, celery leaves, leek julienne, sour cream, crème fraîche, or whipped cream, either plain
or flavored with herbs or spices.

Accompaniments
American soups are traditionally served with crackers. In addition to the usual saltines, other suggestions for
crisp accompaniments are, Melba toast, Cheese straws, Corn chips, Whole-grain wafers, Breadsticks,
Profiteroles (tiny unsweetened cream-puff shells), etc.

m
COMMONLY USED GARNISHES FOR SOUPS
 Croutons : Dices or other shapes made from bread, toast, pastry
 Profit roles : Prepared from choux paste, they are miniature cream puffs which may be filled or
used plain
 Cereals : Rice or barley
 Cheese : Cheese balls or grated parmesan cheese served with croutons on one side.
 Cream : Unsweetened whipped cream or sour cream
 Meat : Usually small dices or juliennes.
 Poultry : Same as meat
 Seafood : Diced or flaked. Large enough pieces distinguishable.
 Pastas : Noodles, spaghetti other pasta products such as star letters cornets etc.
 Vegetables : Cut in various sizes, shapes – juliennes, round slices, dices of sprig, printaniere
vegetables.

SALADS
 WHAT IS A SALAD?
Some of the definitions which best describe a SALAD are:
1. A cold dish of various mixtures of raw or cooked vegetables, usually seasoned with oil, vinegar, or other
dressing and sometimes accompanied by meat, fish, or other ingredients.
2. A salad is food served with dressing. The food can be a cold dish, or green vegetables or a mixture of
fruits, or a hot mixture of hot piquant food, or a frozen mixture of bland fruits, or chopped food in hot
aspic, coleslaw potato or meat.     (Theory of cookery)
3. A dish of raw leafy green vegetables often tossed with pieces of other raw or cooked vegetables, fruit,
cheese, or other ingredients and served with a dressing.
4. A cold dish of chopped vegetables, fruit, meat, fish, eggs, or other food, usually prepared with a dressing,
such as mayonnaise.
5. Food mixtures either arranged on a plate or tossed and served with a moist dressing; usually consisting of
or including greens.
In general, salads are cold preparations made from raw, cooked or blanched vegetables, singly or in
combination, and can include other items such as fresh herbs, fruits, nuts and cooked eggs, pasta, rice, fish,
meat and poultry.
Salads in different countries are known by a different name. Some of the common name’s it is pronounced
are:
Nederland:  Salade, Sla, Mengsel
French: Salade
German:  Salat
Italian:  Insalata
Portuguese: Salada
Spanish:  Ensalada
Swedish:  Salad, Grönsallad
CLASSIFICATIONS OF SALAD
Appetizer salad

Accompaniment Salads

By Serving Main Course Salads

Separate Course Salads

Dessert Salad

Green Salads

SALADS Side Salads

By Ingredients
Composed Salads

Dessert Salads

Simple Salad/Green Salads

By Method of Composed Salads
Preparation
Tossed Salad

TYPES OF SALAD (BY SERVING)

An Appetizer Salad
 Served as the first dish of the course or before the entrée. Many establishments serve salads as a first
course, often as a substitute for a more elaborate first course. Not only does this ease the pressure on the
kitchen during service, but it gives the customers a satisfying food to eat while their dinners are being
prepared. These often consist of poultry, meat, or fish item, plus a variety of other vegetables and
garnishes, attractively arranged on a bed of greens.
 Appetizer salads should stimulate the appetite. This means they must have fresh, crisp ingredients; a
tangy, flavorful dressing; and an attractive, appetizing appearance.
 Pre-portioned salads should not be so large as to be filling, but they should be substantial enough to serve
as a complete course in themselves. Tossed green salads are especially popular for this reason, because
they are bulky without being filling.
 The combination of ingredients should be interesting, not dull or trite. Flavorful foods like cheese, ham,
salami, shrimp, and crab meat, even in small of poorly drained iceberg lettuce with a bland dressing is
hardly the most exciting way to start a meal.
 Attractive arrangement and garnish are important, because visual appeal stimulates appetites. A satisfying,
interesting starter puts the customer in a good frame of mind for the rest of the meal.
 
Accompaniment Salads
 Salads can also be served with the main course. They serve the same function as other side dishes
(vegetables and starches).
 Accompaniment salads must balance and harmonize with the rest of the meal, like any other side dish. For
example, don’t serve potato salad at the same meal at which you are serving French fries or another starch.
Sweet fruit salads are rarely appropriate as accompaniments, expect with such items as ham or pork.
 Side-dish salads should be light and flavorful, not too rich. Vegetable salads, such as macaroni or high-
protein (meat, seafood, cheese, etc.) salads should not be served unless the main course is light.
Combination salads with a variety of elements are appropriate accompaniments to sandwiches.
 
Main Course Salads
 Cold salad plates have become very popular on luncheon menus, especially among nutrition-and diet
conscious diners. The appeal of these salads is in variety and freshness of ingredients.
 Main-course salads should be large enough to serve as a full meal and should contain a substantial portion
of protein. Meat, poultry, and seafood salads, as well as egg salad and cheese, are popular choices.
 Main-course salads should offer enough variety on the plate to be a balanced meal, both nutritionally and
in flavors and textures. In addition to the protein, salad platter should offer a variety of vegetables, greens,
and/or fruits. Examples are chef’s salad (mixed greens, raw vegetables, and strips of meat and cheese),
shrimp or crab-meat salad with tomato wedges and slices of avocado on a on a bed of greens, and cottage
cheese with an assortment of fresh fruit.
 The portion size and variety of ingredients give the chef an excellent opportunity to use imagination and
creativity and good color balance are important.
 
Separate Course Salads
 Many finer restaurants serve a refreshing, light salad after the main course. The purpose is to “cleanse the
plate” after a rich diner and to refresh the appetite and provide a pleasant break before dessert.
 Salads served after the main course was the rule rather than the exception many years ago, and the practice
deserves to be more widespread. A dinner who may be satiated after a heavy meal is often refreshed and
ready for dessert after a light, piquant salad.
 Separate-course salads must be very light and in no way filling. Rich, heavy dressings, such as these made
with sour cream and mayonnaise should be avoided. Perhaps the ideal choice is a few delicate greens,
such as Bibb lettuce or Belgian endive, lightly dressed with vinaigrette. Fruit salads are also popular
choices.
 
Desserts Salads 
 Dessert salads are usually sweet and may contain items such as fruits, sweetened gelatin, nuts, and cream.
 They are often too sweet to be served as appetizers or accompaniments and are best served as dessert or as
part of a buffet or party menu.
 
Types of Salad (By Ingredients)
 Green Salads– Leafy greens
 Side Salads– Made from vegetables, potatoes, grains, pastas, legumes.
  Composed Salads– Are made by carefully arranging items on a plate, rather than tossing them together.
 Desserts Salads– Salads served as dessert are often sweet and usually contain fruits, nuts, and/or gelatin.
Dressings for dessert salads may incorporate cream or liqueur.
 
Types of Salad (By Method of Preparation)
 Simple Salad / Green Salads- Leafy greens
 Composed Salads- Are made by carefully arranging items on a plate, rather than tossing them together.
 Tossed Salad- The salad that the chef would combine all ingredients in the bowl with the dressing.

Parts / Components of Salads

1. Foundation / Base
2. Body
3. Garnish
4. Dressing
 
Foundation / Base of the Salad
 Foundation is the base ingredient of a salad. Leafy greens such as romaine, Bibb lettuce, Boston, or iceberg
lettuce often serve as a salad’s foundation.
 They add greatly to the appearance of many salads, which would look naked on a bare plate. Used whole or
cut into a Chiffonade, the lettuce leaves provide a base for other salad ingredients.
 Cup-shaped leaves of iceberg or Boston lettuce make attractive bases. They give height to salads and help
to confine loose pieces of food. A layer of loose, flat leaves (such as romaine, loose-leaf, or chicory) or of
shredded lettuce may be used as base.
 This kind of base devolves less labor and food cost, since it is not necessary to separate whole cup-shaped
leaves from a head.
 Specially prepared vegetables or fruits, such as a julienne of red pepper or a poached and sliced pear,
sometimes function as a salad’s foundation.
 Tossed green salads or salads served in a bowl rather than on a plate usually have no base or under liner.
 
Body of the Salad
 Body is the main ingredients of a salad. The body creates the salad’s identity and often gives the salad its
name.
 Garden-fresh vegetables, for example, form the body of a garden salad. The body of a protein salad might
be meat, poultry, fish, or legumes.
 
Garnish of the Salad
 Garnish contributes to a salad’s visual appeal and very often to its flavor. A garnish should be colorful,
edible, and the same temperature as the salad itself. Most important, the garnish should be simple so that it
does not overpower the presentation of the salad.
 Garnish should harmonize with the rest of the salad ingredients and, of course, be edible. It may be mixed
with the other salad ingredients (for example, shreds of red cabbage mixed into a tossed green salad), or it
may be added at the end.
 Often the main ingredients of a salad form an attractive pattern in themselves, and no garnish is necessary.
Nearly any of the vegetables, fruits, and protein foods cut into simple appropriate shapes, may be used as
garnish.
 Common salad garnishes include herbs, hard-cooked eggs, olives, fruits, cheese, and nuts. Some salads,
such as fruit salads, do not require a garnish or dressing.
  
Dressing of the Salad
 Dressing is a seasoned liquid or semi liquid that is added to the body of the salad to give it added flavor,
tartness, spiciness, and moistness and sometimes binds the salad ingredients together.
 The dressing should harmonize with the salad ingredient. In general, use tart dressings for green salads and
vegetables salads, and use slightly sweetened dressings for fruit salads, soft, delicate greens like Boston or
Bibb lettuce require a light dressing. A thick, heavy one will turn to mush.
 Dressing may be added at service time (as for green salads), served separately for the customer to add, or
mixed with the ingredients ahead of time (as in potato salad, tuna salad, egg salad, and so on). Salad mixed
with a heavy dressing, like mayonnaise, to hold it together is called a bound salad.
 Remember: dressing is a seasoning for the main ingredients. It should enhance their flavor, not overpower
or drown them.

Salad Dressings 
A Dressing is served with all salads, it is used to flavour the salad provides food value and improves
palatability and appearance. Dressing may be in liquid or semi liquid form.

Salad Dressings Fall into Four Groups

Salad dressings, however, must be evenly mixed for proper service, even though they are made primarily of
oil and vinegar. A uniform mixture of two immiscible liquids is called an emulsion.
1. Temporary Emulsion (Vinaigrettes)A simple oil and vinegar dressings is called a temporary emulsion,
because the two liquids always separate after being shaken up. The disadvantage of oil and vinegar
dressings is that they must be shaken or stirred before each use.
2. Permanent Emulsion (Cream Style or Fatty)Usually last several days or more. Mayonnaise is also a
mixture of oil and vinegar, but the two liquids do not separate.
3. Semi-Permanent Emulsion (Hollandaise)  A semi-permanent emulsion lasts a shorter period of time
than a permanent emulsion, usually several hours.
4. Simple- Oil and Vinegar, Flavored oils. The simplest salad dressings are not emulsions or blended
mixtures. They are simple liquids that contribute moisture and flavor to salads.

Variety of ingredients used for salad dressings

It can be made with a variety of ingredients ranging from oil-vinegar, cream, yogurt, egg, and cheese.
Various oil used for making a dressing are:
 Olive Oil
 Walnut Oil
 Salad Oil
 Groundnut Oil
 Sesame Oil
 Grapeseed Oil
 Hazelnut Oil
Various vinegar used for making a dressing are:
 Tarragon Vinegar
 Balsamic Vinegar
 Red Wine Vinegar
 White Wine Vinegar
 Malt Vinegar
 Sherry Vinegar
 Raspberry Vinegar
 Cider Vinegar

SOME COMMONLY USED DRESSINGS ARE:

 Sauce Louis – Mayonnaise and heavy cream combined with chopped green pepper and green onion
seasoned with chilli sauce and Worcestershire sauce and lemon juice.
 Blue cheese dressing – Creamy dressing containing crumbled blue cheese.
 Roquefort dressing – Vinaigrette containing crumbled Roquefort or blue cheese.
 French dressing- Three parts Oil and one part vinegar with mustard and garlic.
 English dressing- one part of oil and two part vinegar, English mustard and seasoning.
 American vinaigrette- equal quantities of vinegar and oil, mustard and seasoning.
 Lorenzo dressing – Vinaigrette with chili sauce and chopped watercress.
 Anchovy dressing – Vinaigrette and mashed anchovies.
 Italian dressing – Vinaigrette with garlic and herbs: oregano and basil and dill.
 Half-and-half dressing – Half mayonnaise and half vinaigrette seasoned with minced garlic and mashed
anchovies and grated Parmesan cheese; especially good for combination salads.
 Mayonnaise – Egg yolks and oil and vinegar.
 Russian dressing – Mayonnaise with horseradish grated onion and chilli sauce or catsup; sometimes with
caviar added.
 Salad cream – A Creamy salad dressing resembling mayonnaise.
 Thousand Island dressing – Mayonnaise with chilli sauce or tomato ketchup and minced olives and
peppers and hard-cooked egg.
 Acidulated cream:  Three part of thin cream to one part of lemon juice, salt and pepper

Some of the salad leaves used in making of a salad are:

 Aragula: with its peppery and slightly bitter flavor, arugula is a terrific green to be used in a salad.  It can
be gently braised, too.
 Belgian endive: these crunchy, slightly bitter leaves are often used to make hors d’oeuvres, but they can
also be chopped and added to salads, or braised to make an exquisite salad.
 Cress: this is a peppery green that’s great in salads, sandwiches, and soups.  It’s attractive enough to make
a good garnish as well.  There are several varieties, including watercress, upland cress, curly cress,
and land cress. Cress is highly perishable, so try to use it as soon as possible after you buy it.
 Curly endive:  this crisp, bitter green leave can be used in salads or cook it as a side dish.  The outer
leaves are green and somewhat bitter; the pale inner leaves are more tender and mild.
 Iceberg: this is prized for its crispness and longevity in the refrigerator, but it’s a bit short on flavor and
nutrients. It’s one of the most readily available lettuces in india and is mostly used by a number of hotels
to prepare salads.
 Lollo rosso: this mild, tender lettuce has ruffled red edges.
 Radicchio: with its beautiful coloring and slightly bitter flavor, radicchio is        wonderful when
combined with other salad greens.
 Romaine lettuce: romaine combines good flavor and crunch, plus it has a decent shelf life in the
refrigerator.  It’s the preferred green for caesar salad.  Green romaine is the most common variety, but you
can sometimes find red romaine, which is tender.
 Red sangria lettuce
Thick rose blushed leaves over a blanched pale-yellow heart make for an attractive lettuce.
 Very good eating quality
 Belgian endive: these crunchy, slightly bitter leaves are often used to make hors d’oeuvres, but they can
also be chopped and added to salads, or braised to make an exquisite (and expensive) side dish.  Select
heads with yellow tips; those with green tips are more bitter.   Their peak season is the late fall and
winter. 
 Bibb lettuce   this butter head lettuce has delicate, loose leaves and lots of flavor.  The only downside is
that it’s usually expensive
 Mizuna or spider mustard   mizuna has tender leaves and a pleasant, peppery flavor.
 Red mustard:   this has a pungent, peppery flavor that adds zip to salads.
 Dandelions:   dandelions have a somewhat bitter flavour, which Europeans appreciate more than
Americans.   Older dandelion greens should be cooked; younger ones can be cooked or served raw as a
salad green.  They’re available year-round, but they’re best in the spring.