Central Nervous System

(CNS)
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 Definition:
Unpaired, bilaterally symmetrical
structures extending along the longitudinal axis
of the midsagittal plane of the body.
Structures arising directly from the neural
tube.
 Includes:
Brain
Spinal cord
Meninges
 Connective tissue
membranes surrounding
spinal cord and brain
 Dura mater
 Arachnoid mater
 Pia mater
 Spaces
 Epidural: Anesthesia
injected
 Subdural: Serous fluid
 Subarachnoid:
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Fig. 16.2 11-3

 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Definition:
Made up of transmission pathways
carrying information between the CNS
and external/internal environments.
 Afferent (sensory) pathways:
Carry information to the CNS.
 Efferent (motor) pathways:
Carry information from the CNS.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Includes:
Cranial nerves (12 pairs).
Spinal nerves (31 pairs).
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
 May be considered a subdivision of the
PNS.

 Entirely motor.

 Innervates smooth muscle and glands

(viscera).
 ANS Subdivisions
 Sympathetic system (fight or flight):

Also called thoracolumbar.

 Parasympathetic system (feed and breed):

Also called craniosacral.

 General Terminology
 Nerve:
Bundle of fibers in the PNS.
 Tract:
Bundle of fibers in the CNS.
 Commissure:
Tract in the CNS that crosses from one
side to the other.
 General Terminology
 Nucleus:
Aggregation of dendrites and nerve cell
bodies in the CNS.
 Ganglion:
Aggregation of dendrites and nerve cell
bodies in the PNS.
 General Terminology
 White matter:
Areas of myelinated axons.
 Gray matter:
Areas of unmyelinated axons, cell bodies,
and dendrites.
 1.
Nervous Tissue

 Highly cellular
 How does this compare
to the other 3 tissue
types?
 2 cell types
1. Neurons
2.
• Functional, signal
conducting cells
2. Neuroglia
• Supporting cells
 Neuroglial Cells
 Schwann cells
 Astrocytes
 Microglial cells
 Oligodendrocytes
 Ependymal cells
 Neuroglia
 Outnumber neurons by about
10 to 1 (the guy on the right had an
inordinate amount of them).
 6 types of supporting cells
 4 are found in the CNS:
1. Astrocytes
• Star-shaped, abundant, and
versatile
• Guide the migration of
developing neurons
• Act as K+ and NT buffers
• Involved in the formation of the
blood brain barrier
• Function in nutrient transfer
 Neuroglia

2. Microglia
• Specialized immune cells that act
as the macrophages of the CNS
• Why is it important for the CNS to
have its own army of immune
cells?
3. Ependymal Cells
• Low columnar epithelial-esque
cells that line the ventricles of the
brain and the central canal of the
spinal cord
• Some are ciliated which
facilitates the movement of
cerebrospinal fluid
 Neuroglia of CNS

 Astrocytes
 Regulate extracellular brain fluid composition
 Promote tight junctions to form blood-brain barrier
 Ependymal Cells
 Line brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal
 Help form choroid plexuses that secrete CSF
11-15
 Astrocytes
 Derived from neural crest cells.
 Function to physically support neurons.
 Channel materials between capillaries and
neurons (= Blood-brain barrier).
 May serve to guide neurons during
embryonic building of cerebral cortex.
Neuroglia
4. Oligodendrocytes
 Produce the
myelin
sheath
which
provides the
electrical
insulation for
certain
neurons in
the CNS
 Neuroglia of CNS

 Microglia
 Specialized macrophages
 Oligodendrocytes
 Form myelin sheaths if surround axon
11-18
 Microglial Cells
 Derived from embryonic mesenchyme.

 May transform into phagocytes within

CNS.
 Neuroglia of PNS

 Schwann cells or neurolemmocytes

 Wrap around portion of only one axon to form myelin sheath
 Satellite cells
 Surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia, provide support and
nutrients 11-20
Myelinated and Unmyelinated
Axons
 Myelinated axons
 Myelin protects and
insulates axons from
one another
 Not continuous
• Nodes of Ranvier
 Unmyelinated axons

11-21
 Oligodendrocytes
 Derived from neural crest cells.

 Function to myelinate axons within CNS.

 Ependymal cells
 Derived from neural crest cells.

 Line ventricles of brain.

 Basic Features of the Nervous System
Anterior:
• With respect to the central nervous system, located near or toward
the head.

Posterior:
• With respect to the central nervous system, located near or toward
the tail.

Rostral:
• “Toward the “beak”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a
direction along the neuraxis toward the front of the face.

Caudal:
• “Toward the tail”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a
direction along the neuraxis away from the front of the face.
• Located on the same side of the body.
 Basic Features of the Nervous System
 Dorsal:
• “Toward the back”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a
direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or
the back.
 Ventral:
• “Toward the belly”; with respect to the central nervous system, in a
direction perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull
or the front surface of the body. Lateral:
• Toward the side of the body, away from the middle.
 Medial:
• Toward the middle of the body, away from the side.
 Ipsilateral:
• Located on the same side of the body.
 Basic Features of the Nervous System
 Contralateral:
• Located on the opposite side of the body.

 Cross section:
• With respect to the central nervous system, a slice taken at right
angles to the neuraxis.

 Frontal section:
• A slice through the brain parallel to the forehead.
Copyright © 2004 Allyn and Bacon
 Development of the Central Nervous System

Cerebral cortex:
• The outmost layer of gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
Radial glia:
• Special glia with fibers that grow radially outward from the
ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex; provide guidance
for neurons migrating outward during brain development.
Founder cells:
• Cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to cells of
the central nervous system.
Symmetrical division:
• Division of a founder cell that gives rise to two identical founder
cells; increase the size of the ventricular zone and hence the
brain that develops from it.
 Development of the Central Nervous System

Asymmetrical division:
• Division of a founder cell that gives rise to another founder
cell and a neuron, which migrates away from the ventricular
zone towards its final resting place in the brain.
Apoptosis:
• Death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a
genetic mechanism inside the cell.
Copyright © 2004 Allyn and Bacon
 Fore brain
Telencephalon (Ggreek “telos” or end)

cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum)

neocortex or cerebral cortex (Latin “rind or bark”)
hills (gyri), valleys (sulci and fissure (gray matter)
lobes
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
white matter
Rhiencephalon (paleocortex)
olfactory bulb
amygdala
septal area
fornix
basal ganglia
Globus pallidus
stratum
putamen
caudate nuclei
Diencephalon (Greek “dia or through)
Epithalamus
Thalamus (Greek “dai or through)
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus
 Mid brain
Mesencephalon (Greek “mesos or middle)
tectum (Latin “roof”)
pretectal nuclei
superior colliculus
inferior colliculus
Cerebral peduncle
Substantia nigra
Tegmentum (cover)
Occulomotor nucleus
Mid brain reticular formation
Red nuclei
cerebral aquaduct (3rd and 4th ventricles
Raphe nuclei
 Hind brain
Meten cephalon (Greek “meta or between”)
pons (Latin “bridge)
cerebellum (Latin “little brain)
Myelencephalon
medulla oblongata (Latin “medulla or narrow, oblongata “
enlonged”
vestibular nuclei
cochlear nuclei
solitary nucleus
olivery complex
 Division of the Brain
1. The Forebrain

 Sulcus:
• A groove in the surface of the cerebral hemisphere, smaller
than a fissure.
 Fissure:
• A major groove in the surface of the brain, larger than a
sulcus. Fissure:
 Gyrus:
• A convolution of the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres,
separated by sulci or fissures.
 Subcortical region:
• The region located within the brain, beneath the cortical
surface.
 Neocortex

Cerebrum -The largest division of the brain. It

is divided into two hemispheres, each of which is
divided into four lobes.

Cerebrum
Cerebru
m

Cerebellum
Cerebral Cortex - The outermost layer of
gray matter making up the superficial
aspect of the cerebrum.
 Neocortex
The phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary
motor cortex, and association cortex.

Primary visual cortex:

• The region of the posterior occipital lobe whose primary input is from the visual
system.
• Calcarine fissure:
 A fissure located in the occipital lobe on the medial surface of the brain; most of

the primary visual cortex is located along its upper and lower banks.

Primary auditory cortex:

• The region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory
system.
• Lateral fissure:
 The fissure that separates the temporal lobe from the overlying frontal and

parietal lobes.
Primary somatosensory cortex:
• The region of the anterior parietal lobe whose primary input
is from the somatosensory system.

Insular cortex:
• A sunken region of the cerebral cortex that is normally
covered by the rostral superior temporal lobe and caudal
inferior frontal lobe.

Primary motor cortex:

• The region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons
that control movements of skeletal muscle.
cerebrum

• Gyri – Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain.

• Sulci – Small grooves dividing the gyri

Central Sulcus – Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobe

• Fissures – Deep grooves, generally dividing large

regions/lobes of the brain
Longitudinal Fissure – Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres
Transverse Fissure – Separates the Cerebrum from the
Cerebellum
Sylvian/Lateral Fissure – Divides the Temporal Lobe from the
Frontal and Parietal Lobes
 Gyri (ridge)

Sulci
(groove)

Fissure
(deep groove)
Specific Sulci/Fissures

Longitudinal
Fissure

Transverse
Fissure

http://www.dalbsoutss.eq.edu.au/Sheepbrains_Me/human_brain.g
 Lobes and Structures of the Brain

A. Central Sulcus

B. Frontal Lobe

C. Sylvian/Lateral Fissure
A. (groove) G.
D. Temporal Lobe
B.
E. Transverse Fissure F.

F. Occipital Lobe

G. Parietal Lobe C. (groove)

D. E.
(groove)
Copyright © 2004 Allyn and Bacon
 Lobes of the Brain (4)
 Frontal
 Parietal
 Occipital
 Temporal

http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-
8.tif.jpg
* Note: Occasionally, the Insula is considered the fifth lobe. It is
located deep to the Temporal Lobe.
 Lobes of the Brain - Frontal
 The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the
Frontal Bone of the skull.
• It plays an integral role in the following
functions/actions:
- Memory Formation

- Emotions

- Decision Making/Reasoning

- Personality

(Investigation: (Phineas
Investigation Phineas Gage)
Gage)

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-

 Frontal Lobe - Cortical Regions
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus) – Cortical site involved with
controlling movements of the body.

• Broca’s Area – Controls facial neurons, speech, and language comprehension.

Located on Left Frontal Lobe.

– Broca’s Aphasia – Results in the ability to comprehend

speech, but the decreased motor ability (or inability) to speak
and form words.
 Orbitofrontal Cortex – Site of Frontal Lobotomies
* Desired Effects: * Possible Side Effects:
- Diminished Rage - Epilepsy
- Decreased - Poor Emotional Responses
Aggression - Perseveration (Uncontrolled,
- Poor Emotional repetitive actions, gestures, or
Responses words)

• Olfactory Bulb - Cranial Nerve I, Responsible for sensation of

Smell
 Primary Motor
Cortex/ Precentral
Gyrus

Broca’s Area

Orbitofrontal
Cortex

Olfactory Bulb

Regions

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 Lobes of the Brain - Parietal Lobe
 The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to
the Parietal Bone of the skull.

• It plays a major role in the following

functions/actions:
- Senses and integrates sensation(s)

- Spatial awareness and perception

(Proprioception - Awareness of
body/ body parts in space and
in relation to each other)

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg

 Parietal Lobe - Cortical Regions

 Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral

Gyrus) – Site involved with processing of tactile
and proprioceptive information.

• Somatosensory Association Cortex - Assists with the

integration and interpretation of sensations relative to body position
and orientation in space. May assist with visuo-motor coordination.

• Primary Gustatory Cortex – Primary site involved with the

interpretation of the sensation of Taste.
Primary
Somatosensory
Cortex/ Postcentral
Gyrus

Somatosensory
Association Cortex

Primary Gustatory
Cortex

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Regions
 Lobes of the Brain – Occipital Lobe
 The Occipital Lobe of the
Brain is located deep to the
Occipital Bone of the Skull.

• Its primary function is the

processing, integration,
interpretation, etc. of VISION
and visual stimuli.

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-

8.tif.jpg
 Occipital Lobe – Cortical
Regions
 Primary Visual Cortex – This is the
primary area of the brain responsible for
sight -recognition of size, color, light,
motion, dimensions, etc.

• Visual Association Area – Interprets

information acquired through the primary
visual cortex.
Primary Visual
Cortex

Visual Association
Area

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Regions
 Lobes of the Brain – Temporal Lobe
 The Temporal Lobes are located on the sides of the
brain, deep to the Temporal Bones of the skull.

•They play an integral

role in the following
functions:
- Hearing
- Organization/Comprehension of
language

- Information
Retrieval (Memory and
Memory Formation)
Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-
8.tif.jpg
 Temporal Lobe – Cortical Regions
 Primary Auditory Cortex – Responsible for hearing

•Primary Olfactory Cortex – Interprets the

sense of smell once it reaches the cortex via the
olfactory bulbs. (Not visible on the superficial cortex)

• Wernicke’s Area – Language comprehension.

Located on the Left Temporal Lobe.
- Wernicke’s Aphasia – Language
comprehension is inhibited. Words and sentences are
not clearly understood, and sentence formation may
be inhibited or non-sensical.
Primary Auditory
Cortex

Wernike’s Area

Primary Olfactory
Cortex (Deep)
Conducted from Olfactory
Bulb

Modified from: http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/image/1/1-8.tif.jpg Regions

 Arcuate Fasciculus - A white matter tract that connects Broca’s Area
and Wernicke’s Area through the Temporal, Parietal and Frontal
Lobes. Allows for coordinated, comprehensible speech. Damage
may result in:
- Conduction Aphasia - Where auditory comprehension and speech
articulation are preserved, but people find it difficult to repeat heard speech.
• Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
– MRI Technique that traces long
white matter tracts
Frontal lobe:
• The anterior portion of the cerebral cortex, rostral to the
parietal lobe and dorsal to the temporal lobe.
Parietal lobe:
• The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the frontal lobe and
dorsal to the temporal lobe.
Temporal lobe:
• The region of the cerebral cortex rostral to the occipital lobe
and ventral to the parietal and frontal lobes.
Occipital lobe:
• The region of the cerebral cortex caudal to the parietal and
temporal lobes.
Sensory association cortex:
• Those regions of the cerebral cortex that receive information
from regions of the primary sensory cortex.
Motor association cortex:
• The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the primary cortex;
also known as the premotor cortex.

Prefrontal cortex:
• The region of the frontal lobe rostral to the motor association
cortex.

Corpus callosum:
• A large bundle of axons that interconnects corresponding
regions of the association cortex on each side of the brain.
Copyright © 2004 Allyn and Bacon
Sub cortical structures

Thalamus:
• The largest portion of the diencephalon, located above the
hypothalamus; contains nuclei that projects information to
specific regions of the cerebral cortex and receives information
from it.

Projection fiber:
• An axon of a neuron in one region of the brain whose terminal
form synapses with neurons in another region.
Limbic cortex:
• Phylogenetically old cortex, located at the medial edge (“limbus”)
of the cerebral hemispheres; part of the limbic system.
 Some important Subcortical
structures
 Hippocampus
 Amygdila
 Thalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Nucleus accumbens
 Medula
 Cranial Nerves
1. Olfactory
2. Optic
3. Oculomotor
4. Trochlear
5. Trigeminal
6. Abducens
7. Facial
8. Auditory
9. Glossopharyngeal
10. Vagus
11. Spinal
12. Hypoglossal
 Functional Neuroanatomy

Processing structure of posterior brain

1. Primary – sensory analysis

2. Secondary – structural, pattern, “gestalt” analysis

3. Tertiary- identification and communication/integration

with other sensory regions.
 Cortical Layers

 6 layers, cortical columns, functional units

1. Molecular- dendrites from lower layers

2. External granular layer-input from other cortical layers

3. External Pyramidal-

4. Internal Granular-receives inputs sensory

5. Internal Pyramidal- output to brain stem, spinal cord

6. Multiform Layer-thalamus subcortical areas

Cortical Layers