Introduction to Ecology

Ecology is the study of organisms, populations, and communities

as they relate to one another and interact in the ecosystems they
comprise.
In essence, ecologists seek to explain:
life processes
interactions, interrelationships, behaviors, and adaptations of
organisms
the movement of materials and energy through living
communities
the successional development of ecosystems
the abundance and distribution of organisms and biodiversity
in the context of the environment
The word ‘ecology’ was first proposed in the year 1869 by
Ernst Haeckel
in the 1900s ecology was recognised as a distinct field of
science.
Initially it was rather sharply divided into plant and animal
ecology.
Later the understanding of the biotic commu­nity concept, the
food chain, material cycling concept etc., helped to establish the
basic theory for a unified field of general ecology.
Ecology is studied with particular re­ference to plants or to
animals, hence the topics Plant ecology and Animal ecology.
Since plants and animals are intimately interrelated, study of
plant ecology or animal ecology alone is bound to be imperfect
and inadequate.
Levels of Ecological studies:

Within the discipline of ecology, researchers work at four specific

levels, sometimes discretely and sometimes with overlap. These
levels are:

Organism

Population

Community, and

Ecosystem.

Biosphere
Organismal Ecology and Population Ecology
Organismal and population ecology study the adaptations that
allow organisms to live in a habitat and organisms’ relationships to
one another.

Organismal Ecology:
Ecology at the organismal level are interested in the adaptations
that enable individuals to live in specific habitats. These
adaptations can be morphological (pertaining to the study of form
or structure), physiological, and behavioral. For instance, the
Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) is considered a
specialist because the females preferentially oviposit (that is, lay
eggs) on wild lupine. This preferential adaptation means that the
Karner blue butterfly is highly dependent on the presence of wild
lupine plants for its continued survival.
After hatching, the larval caterpillars emerge to spend four to six
weeks feeding solely on wild lupine. The caterpillars pupate
(undergo metamorphosis), emerging as butterflies after about four
weeks. The adult butterflies feed on the nectar of flowers of wild
lupine and other plant species. A researcher interested in studying
Karner blue butterflies at the organismal level might, in addition to
asking questions about egg laying, ask questions about the
butterflies’ preferred temperature (a physiological question) or the
behavior of the caterpillars when they are at different larval stages
(a behavioral question).
Wild lupine: The wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) is the host plant for the Karner blue butterfly.
Population Ecology
A population is a group of interbreeding organisms that are
members of the same species living in the same area at the same
time.
Organisms that are all members of the same species, a
population, are called conspecifics.
A population is identified, in part, by where it lives; its area of
population may have natural or artificial boundaries.
Natural boundaries might be rivers, mountains, or deserts, while
examples of artificial boundaries include mowed grass or
manmade structures such as roads. 
The study of population ecology focuses on the number of
individuals in an area and how and why population size changes
over time. 
Community Ecology
A biological community consists of the different species within an
area, typically a three-dimensional space, and the interactions
within and among these species. Community ecologists are
interested in the processes driving these interactions and their
consequences. Questions about conspecific interactions often
focus on competition among members of the same species for a
limited resource. Ecologists also study interactions among various
species; members of different species are called heterospecifics.
Examples of heterospecific interactions include predation,
parasitism, herbivory, competition, and pollination. These
interactions can have regulating effects on population sizes and
can impact ecological and evolutionary processes affecting
diversity.
For example, the larvae of the Karner blue butterfly form
mutualistic relationships with ants. Mutualism is a form of a long-
term relationship that has coevolved between two species and
from which each species benefits. For mutualism to exist between
individual organisms, each species must receive some benefit
from the other as a consequence of the relationship. Researchers
have shown that there is an increase in the probability of survival
when Karner blue butterfly larvae (caterpillars) are tended by ants.
This might be because the larvae spend less time in each life
stage when tended by ants, which provides an advantage for the
larvae. Meanwhile, the Karner blue butterfly larvae secrete a
carbohydrate-rich substance that is an important energy source
for the ants. Both the Karner blue larvae and the ants benefit from
their interaction.
Karner blue butterfly caterpillar: Karner blue butterfly caterpillars form beneficial interactions with ants. This mutualistic
relationship is an example of a community ecological study, which aims to examine the interactions between different species living
in an area.
Ecosystem Ecology
Ecosystem ecology is an extension of organismal, population, and
community ecology. The ecosystem is composed of all the biotic
components (living things) in an area along with that area’s abiotic
components (non-living things). Some of the abiotic components
include air, water, and soil. Ecosystem biologists ask questions
about how nutrients and energy are stored, along with how they
move among organisms and the surrounding atmosphere, soil,
and water.
The Karner blue butterflies and the wild lupine live in an oak-pine
barren habitat. This habitat is characterized by natural disturbance
and nutrient-poor soils that are low in nitrogen. The availability of
nutrients is an important factor in the distribution of the plants that
live in this habitat. Researchers interested in ecosystem ecology
could ask questions about the importance of limited resources and
the movement of resources, such as nutrients, though the biotic
and abiotic portions of the ecosystem.
History of Ecology:
In a sense ecology is the new name of ‘Natural history’.
Man’s interest in natural history dates back to prehistoric
times. The carving and pictures discovered in France and Spain
speak on the observation of the cave-dwellers about the fauna
and flora around them.
The writings of Romans and Greeks bear evidences of their
interest in natural history. ‘The Histories of Ani­mals’ of Aristotle
(384-322 B.C.) is a famous contribution in this line.
The first naturalist to give a systemised knowledge about the
relation existing bet­ween living organisms and environment was
Buffon. In a series of work in 1749, he stressed on habits and
adaptations. After this, outstanding advances were made in the
study of natural history in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Darwin’s Natu­ralistic voyage round the world, Wallace’s Island of
life and many other work stimu­lated the knowledge of Biology to a
great extent. However, the term ecology was first coined by
German Biologist, Haeckel in 1878.
Branches of Ecology:
Ecological studies focus on how various organisms interact with
their environment. There are a number of fields within ecology,
either focusing on specific areas of interest or using particular
approaches to address eco­logical problems.

i. Behavioural Ecology:
It is concerned with explaining the patterns of behaviour in
animals.
ii. Physiological Ecology or Eco-Physiology:
It deals with how organisms are adapt­ed to respond to
temperature, maintain prop­er water and salt balance, balance
levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide, or deals with other factors of
their physical environment. Studies of eco-physiology play an
important role in agriculture since crop yield is very much
dependent on the performance of individual plants.
It also plays an important role in conservation studies. For
example, the decline of migratory bird species focuses on how
changes in the environment affect the physiological mechanisms
that prepare birds for long-distance migration.
iii. Molecular Ecology:
The use of mole­cular biology to directly tackle ecological problems
is the focus of molecular biology.
iv. Evolutionary Ecology:
Evolutio­nary ecology emphasises the impact of evo­lution on
current patterns and human induced changes. It relates to how
animals choose mates, determine the sex of their off­spring, forage
for food and live in groups, or how plants attract pollinators,
disperse seeds, or allocate resources between growth and
reproduction. Evolutionary ecologists are particularly interested in
how form and func­tion adapt organisms to their environment.
v. Ecosystem Ecology:
Organisms obtain energy either through photosynthesis or by
consuming other organisms. These ener­gy transformations are
associated with the movements of materials within and between
organisms and the physical environment.
vi. Population Ecology:
Population ecology constitutes organisms of the same species
living in the same place and same time. It may comprise of the
dynamics of a single population of any living thing (earth­worm,
fox, whale, pine tree etc.) or may focus on how two populations
(predator and its prey or parasite and its host) interact with each
other.
At the level of population, evolu­tionary changes take place. It is
also related directly to the management of fish and game
populations, forestry and agriculture. Popu­lation ecology is also
fundamental to our understanding of the dynamics of disease.
vii. Community Ecology:
Populations of many different organisms in a particular place are
tied to one another by feeding rela­tionships and other interactions.
These rela­tionships of interacting populations are called ecological
communities and their study is under the purview of community
ecology.
Community studies is principally on how biotic interactions such
as predation, herbivory and competition influence the numbers
and distributions of organisms. It has particular relevance in our
understand­ing of the nature of biological diversity.
viii. Landscape Ecology:
These are of ecological fields whose study requires the synthesis
of several other sub-fields of ecology. Landscape ecology is one
that emphasizes the inter-connections among ecosystems of a
region.
The values of land­scape ecology are:
(a) It emphasises on larger land areas of interacting ecosystems,
i.e., next higher level of organisation above the local ecosystem,
(b) Its tendency to compartmentalize. We study a lake or forest
ecosys­tem but landscape ecology considers the con­nections
between them. For example, herons forage in the lake, nest in the
forest and, thus, the herons move nutrients from water to land.
ix. Conservation Biology:
This sub- field of ecology blends the concepts of gene­tics with
population and community ecology. It takes a landscape approach
and is related to the maintenance of biodiversity and the
preservation of endangered species.
x. Restoration Ecology:
It relates to the re-establishing of the integrity of natural sys­tems
that have been damaged by human activity.
xi. Ecotoxicology:
It is the study of the fate and action of human-made substances,
such as pesticides and detergents, in the natural world.
Ecotoxicology focuses on the way in which human-made
substances affect human health. Eco-toxicologists often use other
animals, such as fish or small inverte­brates, as models for the
Scope of Ecology:
The solution of a particular ecological problem requires several
lines of approach. None of this constitute an end in itself but each
one of these makes important contribution in making the picture
com­plete.
These various lines of approach towards the ecological
problem can be translated as:
(a) Biotic
b) Quantitative
(c) Climatic (both physical and chemical)
(d) Taxonomic
(e) Genetic and evolutionary.
(a)Biotic:
Biotic factors are the direct outcome of the various types of
activities amongst the animals. A competition for food and
shelter always exists amongst the members of a community.
This competition de­mands various types of activity amongst the
animals.
(b) Quantitative
Quantitative study includes an assessment of the population
density in a given area and also an estimation of the number of
members present in different communities. Information of this
kind is of immense value in solving many problems like food
availability and movement within a parti­cular colony.
(c) Climatic (both physical and chemical):
Climatic factors include both physical and chemical conditions
present in a habitat. T hese factors are ever changing in nature.
Physical factors include mainly temperature, light and humidity.
Chemical factors include acidity or salinity that are specially
present in aquatic habitat. Some animals are so sensitive that a
minute climatic change becomes fatal to them. Climatic factors
play an important role in the distribution of animals.
(d) Taxonomic:
Taxonomy means classification, naming and description of
organisms. A mere naming of a large number of animals of a
given area, as was done earlier in ecolo­gical surveys, is
meaningless without a consideration of the circumstances that
enable them to live there. Thus a com­plementary observation
of the various eco­logical factors together with taxonomy is
emphasized in ecology.
(e) Genetic and evolutionary.
The genetic and evolutionary aspects have taken a rightful place in
ecological problems. In recent years the knowledge of heredity and the
mechanism of the opera­tion of Natural Selection have increased to a
considerable extent.
Evolution is no longer regarded as a thing of the past and it has been
proved that evolution is a dynamic process though the progress is very
slow. In certain circumstances it has become possible to detect and to
measure the rate of evolution in wild population.

The above subdivisions form the back­bone of the study of ecology.

Water and Life
In biology, water is one of the most important substances you'll
learn about. Water is the most abundant resource on Earth and
all life forms depend on it for survival. Just think about all the
things you need water for on a daily basis. Water is constantly 
moving through Earth.
Polarity, Cohesion, and Adhesion
Recall that water (H2O) is a polar molecule because oxygen
atoms pull more strongly on electrons than hydrogen atoms do.
This creates two poles on the water molecule: one with a positive
charge and one with a negative charge.
Universal Solvent
Water's polarity also makes it great at dissolving polar solutes. In
fact, it's known as the universal solvent. This is because the
negative pole around the oxygen atom can attract positively
charged molecules, while the positive poles around the hydrogens
can attract negatively charged molecules. In this way, water is
able to break the bonds between molecules and effectively 
dissolve them. This ability is extremely important for cellular
processes.
However, just because water is a great solvent doesn't mean that
it can break down anything. It has a hard time dealing with 
nonpolar substances like lipids. If you've ever tried to mix oil and
water, you'll know that the two substances will never completely
mix, no matter how much you shake them.
High Specific Heat
Water molecules are attracted to each other through hydrogen
bonds. It takes a lot of energy to break these bonds. This means
it takes a lot of energy to change water molecules from
one phase into another.
Water does not experience large temperature fluctuations. It
takes the addition of a lot of energy to heat up and the loss of a
lot of energy to cool down. This is attributed to water's high
specific heat.
Density
Density is a measure of how closely molecules are packed
together. Water is unusual in that it is less dense as a solid than
it is as a liquid. This means that water molecules are packed
together more closely in the liquid phase than as a solid.
Ecological Factor # 1. Light:
Light is an important ecological factor. Direct exposure of
protoplasm to light causes death. Still, without light, life would not
exist, as it is the ultimate source of energy.
(i) Quality of Light:
Animals and plants both respond to different wavelengths. For
example, the rate of photosynthesis varies somewhat with
different wavelengths. Among mammals, colour vision is well-
developed only in primates.
(ii) Intensity of Light:
The intensity of light controls the entire ecosystem through its
influence on primary production. Photo­synthesis follows linear
increase up to an optimum or light saturation level. Individual
plants and communities adopt to different light intensities by
becoming shade adapted (i.e. reaching saturation at low
intensities) or sun adapted.
Phytoplankton, other than diatoms, are shade adapted and
photosyn­thesis in them are very much inhibited by light intensities
(peak production in the sea occurs below rather than at the
surface). Diatoms, on the other hand, are sun adapted and show
maximum rate of photosynthesis when light intensity is less than 5
percent of full sunlight.
(iii) Duration of Light:
The duration of light or photoperiodicity refers to the length of the
light and dark portions of the 24-hour day. Change in day length
provides orga­nisms information about the advance of seasons, so
that they can schedule their life history events, breeding
conditions and other activities at the appropriate season.
Light in relation to water:
Water layers affect light intensity. The intensity of light decreases
gradually with increasing depth. Light penetration in water
depends upon the turbidity, solute content, motion of water,
plankton growth etc. Thus, submerged plants receive weaker
illumination than the exposed plants, floating on the surface of
water.
Functions of Light on Animals:
Light plays an effective role on the acti­vity of animals which
are:
1. Metabolism:
The metabolic activi­ties of animals are affected by light through its
heating effect on tissues. It results in an increase in enzymatic
activity and in degree of solubility of salts and minerals. Animals
residing in caves show slow metabolic acti­vities.
2. Locomotion:
Locomotion in some lower animals is regulated by light — a phe­
nomena known as photo kinesis. For example, blind larvae of
mussel crab (Pinnotheres) moves at a faster rate when exposed
to an increased light intensity. Locusts stop their flight when the
sun gets hidden by the clouds.
The movement of animals in response to light is called photo
taxis, and such move­ments are called phototactic. Some animals
like Euglena etc. are said to be positively pho­totactic as they move
towards the light source. Others like earthworm, slugs, copepods
etc. move away from the light source and are thus known as
negatively phototac­tic. Some animals like the polyps of many
coelenterates show movement of only a part of their body in
response to light and are thus termed as phototropism.
3. Reproduction:
The gonads in some birds become active with increased light
intensity. Thus, light initiates breeding activities. Some animals
(sheep, goat, deer etc.) are short-day animals and they can be
brought to sexual act by decreasing the length of exposure to
daylight. Animals like starlings, turkeys etc. are long-day animals,
while, squirrels, guinea pigs etc. are indiffe­rent towards the length
of light exposure.
4. Development:
The larva of Salmon undergoes normal development when
exposed under sufficient light conditions. However, rapid mortality
takes place in the absence of light. Smolt transformation in fishes
is initiated by the rate of change of daily photo-period. The larva of
Mytilus develops better in darkness than in light.
5. Eyes:
In case of cave dwelling, Proteus anguinus, and deep sea fishes,
the eyes are totally absent or rudimentary. This occurs due to the
absence of light in these habitats. Some deep sea fishes do have
larger eyes than the normal size to capture any ray of light that
might be present. However, there is total absence of cones in
these eyes.

6. Vision:
Most animals can see objects and differentiate colours only in the
presence of light. However, vision is reduced in noc­turnal animals
when they are exposed to suf­ficient light conditions.
7. Synthesis of calcium:
Calcium syn­thesis in bones require sunlight. The bones of deep
sea fishes are brittle as they are unable to synthesise calcium due
to the total absence of sunlight.
8. Pigmentation:
The process of pig­mentation in animals are influenced by light.
Colouration and mimicry are best exemplified in the presence of
light.
9. Photoperiodism:
Photoperiodism on the total light period has profound effect on
animals through such processes as gona­dal activity, reproduction,
metamorphosis, migration etc. Migration of birds and fishes are
known to be affected by photoperiodism. Early maturation in
certain cat fishes seems to be induced by longer period of day.
10. Vitamin D formation:
Ultraviolet radiation of the sun plays a role in vitamin D production
in animals.
Ecological Factor # 2. Temperature:
Life on this earth exist within a narrow range of 300 degree
Celsius (from -200°C to 100°C). In fact, most species activities are
restricted to an even narrower band of tempe­rature. Some
organisms during the resting stage can survive through very low
tempe­ratures, while a few microorganisms (bacte­ria) can tolerate
and even reproduce in hot springs, where the temperature is close
to the boiling point (80°C for cyanobacteria). The range of
temperature variation is less in water than on land. Thus, aquatic
organisms have narrower range of temperature tole­rance than
land animals.
Temperature, thus, is a limiting factor. It affects organisms by
controlling their mor­phological, physiological and behavioural
features through either heat gain or heat loss or both. When heat
gain is equal to heat loss then the body temperature of the animal
or plant will remain same. If heat gain is more than heat loss then
body temperature will rise, while the reverse is true when body
temperature drops.
Poikilotherms and Homoiotherms:
On the relationship of body temperature to environmental
temperature, organisms are of two types — Poikilotherms and
Homoio­therms.
(a) Poikilotherms:
Poikilotherms or cold blooded organisms are those whose body
temperature tends to match environ­mental temperature. As the
environmental temperature goes up or down, the rates of their
body processes also goes up or down — as the case may be.
Most lower organisms, particularly those residing in water, are poi­
kilotherms.
Poikilotherms have no internal physiological means to keep body tempe­
rature constant. These animals do adjust their body temperature with
that of the outer world. However, some animals (lizards) use behavioural
rather than physiological means to regulate their body temperature.

(b) Homoiotherms or homeiotherms:

Homeiotherms better known as warm blooded organisms, can
keep their body tem­perature constant even when the environ­
mental temperature changes. Homoiotherms are mainly birds and
mammals, who have automatic physiological mechanisms for
keeping their body temperature constant despite the changes of
the outside or sur­rounding temperature.
To keep their body temperature high at low environmental
temperature, homoiotherms increase their metabolic rate or
increase insulation by adding fat or fluffing up feathers or fur. On
the other hand, to keep body temperatures low at high
environmental temperatures, warm-blooded animals lower their
heat production and increase their heat loss by evaporating water
from sweat glands or by panting etc.
There may be two types of species:
(i) Freeze-tolerating species (survives ice-formation in their extracellular spaces) and freeze-
susceptible species (which do not survive on freezing).
Homoiotherms, on the other hand, can survive low temperatures by accumulating enough food
in their body to keep heat pro­duction high and so as to maintain normal body temperature. If a
homoiotherm fails to accumulate enough food, its body temperature will drop and it will die
quickly at a body temperature well above freezing.
Poikilotherms are energy conservatives with low power, while homoiotherms are extravagant
but powerful. In a powerful food rich habitat, homoiotherm wins but poikilo­therms will not get
along quite well. When food or water or oxygen disappears for the season, poikilotherms can
survive by shut­ting themselves down.
Hibernation:
Hibernation or winter sleep is seen in only a few mammals
(thirteen-lined ground squirrels, jumping mice etc.) and still fewer
birds (woodchucks etc.) The warm-blooded animals that hibernate
in winter are termed heterotherms.
Eurythermal and stenothermal orga­nisms:
Organisms such as man, lizards, amphibians etc. can tolerate
wide range of temperature fluctuations and are referred to as
eurythermal organisms. On the other hand, corals, snails etc.
cannot tolerate wide ranges of temperature fluctuations as they
have no adaptation to adjust themselves to such temperature
fluctuations. They are called stenothermal organisms.
Ectotherms and Endotherms:
A classi­fication based on the relationships between organisms and
environmental temperature divides organisms into ectotherms and
endotherms. Ectotherms are organisms who largely depend on
external sources of heat to raise their body temperature.
Examples: pro­tista, plants, fishes, reptiles etc. Endotherms are
organisms capable of generating heat internally in order to raise
their body temperature. Examples: birds and mammals.
As the temperature moves away from the thermo neutral zone,
the endotherms expend more and more energy to maintain body
tempe­rature. Endotherms produce heat at a rate con­trolled by the
brain. Heat loss is moderated by insulator material (fur, fat etc.)
and by control­ling blood flow near the skin surface.
Functions of Temperature:
The effects of temperature on plants and animals are:
1. Effect on metabolism:
As tempe­rature regulates the activity of enzymes, it regulates the
metabolic processes of orga­nisms. It affects the rate of
transpiration, photosynthesis and seed germination in plants. It
also regulates the respiration rates and other metabolic activities
in both plants and animals.
2. Effect on reproduction:
The maturation of gonads and liberation of gametes take place at
a particular temperature that varies from species to species.
Breeding also is affected in some due to temperature. The number
of eggs laid by blowfly increases with increa­sing temperature up to
32.5°C and thereafter decreases. The fecundity of animals is also
affected by temperature.
3. Effect on growth and development:
Animals:
Growth and development of animals are affected by temperature.
Corals do not flourish when the temperature of water drops below
21°C. In blow-fly, the incubation period of eggs decreases with
increasing temperature.
4. Effect on crossing over:
Tempe­rature is seen to affect the crossing over and somatic
expression of genes in animals. If the larva or pupa are kept at low
or high tempe­rature it affects the development of wings, eyes etc.
5. Effect on sex-ratio:
In rotifers and daphnids, temperature affects sex ratio. Under
normal temperature, daphnids lay parthenogenetic eggs that
develop into females, while with the increase in tempe­rature they
give fertilised eggs that develop into either males or females.
6. Effect on colouration:
Some species of mammals, birds and insects present in warm
humid climates, bear darker pigment than the races of species
who resides in cool and dry climate. In Hyla (tree frog) and
Phrynosoma (horned toad), low temperature induces darkening of
pigments.
7. Effect on morphology:
The absolute size of an organism is affected by tempe­rature.
Mammals and birds attain larger body sizes in cold regions than in
warmer areas. Whereas, poikilotherms are smaller in cold regions.
Snout, ear, legs etc. of mammals are relatively shorter in colder
areas than in warmer areas. The races of birds occurring in colder
regions have relatively narrower and more accuminate wings,
while those in warmer areas tend to be broader.
pH is measured mathematically by, the negative logarithm of hydrogen
ions concentration.
Ph measures the concentration of hydrogen ions in water. It
indicates how much water is acidic or basic. Ph directly influences
the toxicity of ammonia and hydrogen sulphide.
Application of lime is the best way to counter the problem of water
pH.
Lime increases soil pH. Calcium carbonate (Calcite), Dolomite,
calcium hydroxide (Saked lime) and Calcium oxide (Quick Lime)
are the conventional liming materials.
Agricultural Gypsum may be applied to correct alkaline pH.
What happens when consistently above recommended value?
9 – 11 Stressful for catfish, slow growth rate.
Above 11 alkaline death point. All life, including bacteria in pond
will die at this point.
Higher proportion of Total Ammonium Nitrogen in the form of
unionized ammonia in water, which is more toxic for the fish. What
happens when Consistently below recommended Value? •Below
4, acid death point.
4 – 6.0. Survive but stressed, slow growth, reduced feed intake,
higher FCRs. •Higher proportion of Total Ammonium Nitrogen is in
the form of ionized ammonia, which is less toxic for fish.
Low pH indicates high levels of dissolved carbon-dioxide pH
Recommen
Thermal stratification occurs when two types of steam with
different temperatures come into contact. Their temperature
difference causes the colder and heavier water to settle at the
bottom of the lake or pond while allowing the warmer and lighter
water to float over the colder water.
Stratification:
The ecological communities are arranged in different layer or
strata forms, a phenomenon called stratification.
Various growth form have different mode of arrangement
classifying community into
(a) Horizontal Zonation and
(b)Vertical stratification, i.e. Populations assembled to form
communities and these populations are dispersed into definite
vertical or horizontal strata.
Environmental Factors responsible for stratification: light,
temperature, or water are responsible for this fractionation
Horizontal Zonation
The spatial arrangement of community species exhibit patterns
and based on these patterns the community is divided into sub-
communities which are ecologically related. If the distribution
pattern is horizontal it’s called zonation layering in community. For
example in lakes or deep ponds majorly three zones are
recognised i.e. littoral, limnetic (Photic or openwater) and
profondal zone (Aphotic or Deep-water). The organism varies in
each zone of zonation pattern. Another example include mountain
associated vegetation, altitudinal and latitudinal variations of
vegetation in relation to climate of the existing region.
(b)Vertical stratification
Vertical change in the pattern of community structure is called
stratification. Vertical Stratification is as simple as the horizontal
zonation community of pond, where each zone has different vertical
storey, or complex stratification
Strtification in lakes:
Lakes in temperate latitudes exhibit marked seasonal temperature
changes which may be described as follows:
Winter:
During winter the coldest water forms ice at 0°C (32°F) and floats at the
surface.
The water at increasing depth below the ice is progressively warmer and
denser. The heaviest water, at the bottom of the lake, has a winter
temperature of 4°C and throughout winter the water remains relatively
stable.
Spring:
Following the ice melt, the surface water gradually warms to 4°C. At this
point the water column is nearly isothermal, i.e., all the water is of uniform
temperature and density. Hence, the strong spring winds cause considerable
stirring, which results in a complete mixing of water, dissolved oxygen, and
nutrients from the lake surface to the lake bottom, a phenomenon known as
the spring overturn or spring turnover As the spring progresses, however, the
surface waters naturally become warmer and lighter than the water at lower
levels, as a result, the lake becomes thermally stratified into the following
three zones
(a) Epilimnion:
The upper stratum, which usually has the highest dissolved
oxygen concentration and is characterized by a temperature
gradient of less that 1°C per metre of depth, is the epilimnion
(literally the “upon-lake” or the “upper lake”). This stratum contains
more or less uniformly warm, circulating, and fairly turbulent water.
(b) Hypolimnion:
The lower stratum of water characterized by a temperature gradient of
less than 1°C per metre of depth is the hypolimnion (literally the “lake
below” or “Bottom Lake”). This part contains more dense, cooler, and
relatively quiet water.
(c) Metalimnion:
It is the transitional stratum of marked thermal change between the
epilimnion and hypolimnion. The middle layer of the lake, characterized
by a temperature gradient of more than 1°C per metre of depth is the
thermocline. The term thermocline refers to the plane or surface of
maximum rate of decrease of temperature in the metalimnion (Wetzel,
1983).
Summer:
Unless the lake is very clear and permits photosynthesis, the
hypolimnion frequently becomes depleted of oxygen in summer
because of the biological oxygen demand of bacterial decomposers, the
reduced photosynthetic activity, and the minimal mixing with upper
waters as a result of density differences
Autumn:
At the end of thermal stratification the surface waters of the
epilimnion gradually cool as a result of conduction, evaporation
and convection. Now the lake attains temperature uniformity from
top to bottom. Because the water is now also of uniform density, it
becomes well mixed by wind and wave action, a phenomenon
known as the fall overturn or fall turnover As a result, the nutrients,
dissolved oxygen, and plankton become uniformly distributed.
Winter:
As the winter approaches, the lake gets colder until the water
attains a uniform temperature of 4°C at which it has maximal
density. As the surface cools below it becomes lighter. Eventually
the surface water may freeze at 0°C. During the winter season,
the ice cover forms on the surface and in such ice-bound lakes
there exists an inverse stratification of water temperature, with the
coldest water (ice) at the surface and the warmest water (4°C) on
the bottom.
•An ecotone is a zone of junction or a transition area between two
biomes (diverse ecosystems).
•Ecotone is the zone where two communities meet and integrate.
•For e.g. the mangrove forests represent an ecotone between marine
and terrestrial ecosystem.
•Other examples are grassland (between forest and
desert), estuary (between fresh water and salt water) and riverbank or
marshland (between dry and wet).
•Characteristics of Ecotone
•It may be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between
forest and desert).
•It has conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems. Hence it is
a zone of tension.
•Usually, the number and the population density of the species of an
outgoing community decreases as we move away from the community
or ecosystem.
•A well-developed ecotone contains some organisms which are entirely
different from that of the adjoining communities.
•Ecocline
•Ecocline is a zone of gradual but continuous change from one
ecosystem to another when there is no sharp boundary between
the two in terms of species composition.
•Ecocline occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual
change in abiotic factors such as altitude, temperature
(thermocline), salinity (halocline), depth, etc.).
Factors influencing light penetration in
water
Sunlight consists of the entire spectrum of electromagnetic
radiation, which includes gamma, X, ultraviolet, visible, infrared,
micro- and radio waves. The major part of solar radiation is in the
form of visible and infrared rays that vary in wavelength.
Sunlight that strikes the earth’s surface is either absorbed or
reflected. The transparency of water surfaces varies. It is greater
for clear water, when the water surface is smooth, and between
mid-morning and mid-afternoon, when the sun’s rays are nearest
to vertical with the earth’s surface.
Latitude and season also affect the angle of the sun’s rays. When the
angle of incidence of the sun’s rays is 60 degrees or less, less than 10
percent of incident sunlight normally is reflected by a water surface.
The percentage of incident light reflected by a surface is called the
albedo. The annual albedos of water bodies range from 5 to 7
percent at the Equator to 12 to 13 percent at 60 degrees latitude.
On a monthly basis, the albedo of water varies little with time of
year at the Equator, but at 60 degrees latitude, the albedo is
around 5 percent at equinox in March and September, and around
55 percent at the beginning of winter.
Light penetration
Light penetrating a water surface is scattered and absorbed or
quenched as it passes downward. Water scatters but does not
absorb ultraviolet light. It absorbs infrared light quickly – little
infrared light penetrates more than 2 meters. Light is quenched
rather quickly even in clear water. Only about 25 percent of
incident light reaches a depth of 10 meters in the open ocean,
where water is very clear.
The visible spectrum consists of wavelengths between 390 and 750
nanometers (nm, next slide). One nanometer is equivalent to 1 billionth
of a meter. The rate of visual light attenuation in water is greatest for red
and orange rays, less for violet rays and least for yellow, green and blue
rays. The presence of dissolved organic matter and suspended solids
further impedes light penetration, and different types of solids
preferentially absorb at different wavelengths.
Phytoplankton absorb light best within the red and orange part of
the spectrum, but they absorb other colors to a lesser degree.
Dissolved organic matter absorbs blue, violet and ultraviolet light
most strongly. 
Suspended mineral matter tends to absorb light uniformly across
the visible spectrum, while dissolved inorganic substances do not
interfere with light absorption by water. Salinity, therefore, does
not have a significant impact on underwater light.
Photic zone, Secchi disk
As a general rule, phytoplankton and other aquatic plants cannot
survive at light intensities below 1 percent of light received at the
surface – whether measured as total light or PAR. The layer of
water receiving 1 percent or more of incident light is known as the
photic or euphotic zone. Because light is quenched exponentially
with depth, the percentage of incident PAR decreases rapidly (Fig.
previous slide). Incidentally, the depth profile for attenuation of
total light would be almost identical to that for PAR.
In ponds with aeration, induced water circulation continually brings
phytoplankton from deeper water into the photic zone and vice
versa. This phenomenon has basically the same effect as
increasing the thickness of the photic zone – it increases the
amount of photosynthesis per unit surface area in a water body.
In lakes, the depth of the photic zone typically corresponds to the
depth at which thermal stratification occurs. There is no
photosynthesis in the hypolimnion to provide dissolved oxygen.
Lakes in which hypolimnetic dissolved oxygen depletion occurs
are classified as eutrophic – meaning rich in nutrients – as
opposed to oligotrophic lakes that are nutrient-poor.
The depth of the photic zone can be estimated with Secchi disk
visibility. The value 1.7 divided by the Secchi disk visibility in
meters has been reported by several researchers to provide a
good estimate of the light extinction coefficient (K) for use in the
Lambert’s law equation.
Turbidity created by phytoplankton growth in ponds often is a
means to avoid growth of underwater macrophytes. At a typical
Secchi disk visibility of 40 to 50 cm in aquaculture ponds, a
minimum depth of 110 cm is necessary to avoid enough
illumination at the bottom for plant growth.
Photosynthesis
Light penetration into water also is the energy source for
photosynthesis by phytoplankton and other aquatic plants. Plants
use red and orange light best, but they also use other parts of the
visible spectrum. Wavelengths between 400 and 700 nanometers
are called photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), and
underwater light meters capable of measuring PAR are available.
Because photosynthesis is a chemical reaction mediated by
energy from photons of light captured by chlorophyll and other
light-sensitive pigments in plant cells, photons are treated as if
they are molecules in measuring PAR.
Concept of limiting factors and laws
governing these factors.
Definition of Limiting Factor
• A limiting factor is a resource or environmental condition which
limits the growth, distribution or abundance of an organism or
population within an ecosystem.
• These can be either physical or biological factors which can be
identified through a response of increased or decreased growth,
abundance, or distribution of a population, when the factor is
changed and when the other factors necessary to life are not.
• Limiting factors are theorized under Liebig’s Law of the
Minimum, which states that “growth is not controlled by the total
amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource”.
Limiting Factor Definition
• A limiting factor restricts organisms from occupying their
fundamental niche and results instead in the fulfillment of their
actual or realized niche.

Fundamental Niche – The total range of environmental conditions

that is suitable in order for an organism to exist, in the absence of
limiting factors.
Realized Niche – The actual amount of resources or
environmental conditions that an organism is able to utilize within
an ecosystem
 Types of Limiting Factor
❑ Density Dependent Factors
• Density dependent factors are those factors whose effect on a
population is determined by the total size of the population.
• Predation and disease, as well as resource availability, are all
examples of density dependent factors.
• As an example, disease is likely to spread quicker through a
larger, denser population, impacting the number of individuals
within the population more than it would in a smaller, more widely
dispersed population.
❑ Density Independent Factors
• A density independent limiting factor is one which limits the size
of a population, but whose effect is not dependent on the size of
the population (the number of individuals).
•
Examples of density independent factors include environmentally
stressful events such as earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic
eruptions, as well as sudden climate changes such as drought or
flood, and destructive occurrences, such as the input of extreme
environmental pollutants.
• Density independent factors will usually kill all members of a
population, regardless of the population size.
Single-limiting and co-limiting
A single-limiting factor is when there is one factor that limits the system.
A co-limiting factor is when a factor affects the population of organisms
in an ecosystem indirectly but increases the limitation of the factor
directly affecting the population.
❑ Physical and Biological Limiting Factors
• Limiting factors can also be split into further categories. Physical
factors or abiotic factors include temperature, water availability, oxygen,
salinity, light, food and nutrients; biological factors or biotic factors,
involve interactions between organisms such as predation, competition,
parasitism and herbivory
Examples of Limiting Factors
❑ Resources • Resources such as food, water, light, space, shelter and
access to mates are all limiting factors. If an organism, group or
population does not have enough resources to sustain it, individuals will
die through starvation, desiccation and stress, or they will fail to
produce offspring. • In the case of photosynthesizing organisms such as
plants, light is a vitally important limiting factor, essential for their
growth. This is most prominent in understory plants of a forest, where
photon energy from light is made less available, as it is unable to
penetrate through higher canopy levels. However, many different plants
are adapted to withstand different levels of light, allowing them to
survive with less light energy input
In an ecosystem with unlimited resources, no predators and no disease,
populations may experience exponential growth. The carrying capacity
therefore acts as a moderator of population size; once limiting resources
start to become depleted by increasing numbers of individuals,
intraspecific competition occurs and the growth rate of the population
begins to slow as individuals die or fail to reproduce. Eventually the
growth rate levels off at a plateau – this plateau is the carrying capacity.
Once the carrying capacity of an environment has been reached,
individuals may begin to search for resources elsewhere, migrating away
from the original population and creating new populations. If the
populations become separated indefinitely, this can lead to speciation.
❑ Environmental Conditions • Limiting factors are also present as
environmental conditions. Two of the most prominent examples are
temperature and precipitation; these are widely affected by the climate,
and seasonal changes within the climate. The effect that each factor has
on a particular organism is determined by each individual species’ life
history traits. • Maintaining a correct body temperature is vitally
important for almost all organisms in order to perform metabolic
functions effectively. With many organisms, this means they can only
inhabit certain depths, as in marine organisms, certain elevations, as in
mountain dwelling animals and plants, and certain latitudes of the
earth, i.e. the tropics or the Northern hemisphere
Although sunlight tends to be a factor which controls the temperature
of a habitat, and thus affects photosynthesis in terms of photon energy,
correct temperature is also important for catalyzing enzymes in
photosynthetic reactions. Above the optimum temperature, enzymes
are catalyzed at an increased rate, which can lead to denaturing of the
enzymes. This is called a light independent reaction. Increased
temperature also leads to desiccation of leaves, as it causes increased
evapotranspiration and removes too much water from the plant.
Conversely, if temperatures fall too low, frost may form on leaves, which
damages the cell walls and cell contents.
The amount of precipitation in an environment is also important for
plants. The absorption of water as a resource is vital for plant growth
and other functions, so lack of rainfall can lead to wilting, scorching and
damaged cells. Precipitation is also important because many plants are
evolved to withstand different amounts of atmospheric humidity. As the
thin, tough leaves of cacti make them specifically adapted to surviving in
hot and arid conditions, too much rainfall can affect their ability to
reproduce, which in turn restricts the population growth. Too much
rainfall may also flood the soil, reducing the amount of oxygen available
to the roots, causing root loss or leaving the plants susceptible to fungal
damage.
Examples of Limiting Factors ❑ Biotic factors • As well as resource and
climatic factors affecting population growth, biotic factors such as
predation, herbivory, parasitism, and interspecific and intraspecific
competition, are also limiting factors; these tend to be density
dependent factors. • Parasitism, like disease, is generally more
destructive to large, dense populations because the parasite is able to
effectively parasitize more individuals if they are in close contact. Within
tropical ecosystems, the Cordyceps fungus is a prominent parasite, and
has many strains specialized on different species. Because it is such a
successful parasite, it keeps many populations down, working as a
limiting factor, and it is thought to be one of the main reasons that most
species in tropical rainforests are rare. The availability of host species,
which the Cordyceps fungus can parasitize, is a limiting factor for the
fungus.
The population density of predators and prey are limiting factors for
each of these parties. If a population, for example deer, reaches high
numbers because there has been an increase in a resource that is their
limiting factor – such as increased tree growth after a warm summer –
their predators, for example, wolves, will experience an increase in their
food source. The wolf population, with a surplus of deer to eat, may
then be able to reproduce more freely, increasing their own population.
As the population of wolves increases, they will require the high number
of deer, which was available as their limiting factor when the population
grew. As the wolves heavily predate the deer populations, the resources
will eventually become scarce, and the wolf population will no longer be
sustainable. As wolves die, pressure on the deer population is reduced
and the numbers will be able to increase again; thus the cycle continues.
❑ Human Limiting Factors • The increase in human population is
responsible for placing many limiting factors on species that did not
historically exist. Density dependent limiting factors such as decreased
availability of space due to deforestation is a global issue, causing
decline and extinctions in many populations. • Resources are also
increasingly scarce due to hunting and leaching of nutrients from soil,
which causes intraspecific and interspecific competition within and
between populations. Removal of predators has also disturbed the
balance of natural biotic, cycle of predators and prey; in some cases,
prey animals have been able to thrive in the absence of predators,
exceeding the carrying capacity of ecosystems and causing
environmental damage. Predators have also been introduced as invasive
species into ecosystems, putting pressure on prey populations and thus
on the prey’s natural predators.
There are also many density independent factors that have been caused
by humans. Leaking pollutants and other habitat destruction has
destroyed entire ecosystems. The onset of climate change as a result of
burning fossil fuels, is rapidly increasing global temperatures, as well as
changing weather patterns and increasing the rate of natural disaster
events, such as hurricanes, floods, fires and more.
Liebig’s law of the minimum
Law of the minimum was originally developed by Carl Sprengel and then
later popularized by Justus von Liebig. This law states that the growth is
regulated by a limiting factor, i.e. the scarcest resource, rather than by
the total resources available. In biology and ecology, this means that the
growth of a population is restricted by the factors that are scarcest and
not by the factors that are abundant. This was based on the observation
of crop growth. Accordingly, the addition of nutrients in abundance did
not result in increased growth. Conversely, the addition of nutrients that
are scarce, which in this case is the limiting factor, did lead to increased
crop growth. This means that even if some of the nutrients in the soil
are abundant but if the other nutrients are limiting or relatively fewer
then crop growth will not increase. Applying this principle to other
biological populations, this implicates growth occurring only as dictated
by the most limiting factor. This principle was used by William Cumming
Rose as a basis in identifying the amino acids that were labeled
as essential
Blackman’s law of limiting factor
The law of limiting factor was proposed in 1905 by the British plant
physiologist, Frederick Frost Blackman. According to this law, a process
that depends on multiple factors will have a rate limited by the pace of
the slowest factor. Photosynthesis, for example, is a biological process
that depends on multiple factors. The general chemical reaction of
photosynthesis is 6CO2+12H2O+energy=C6H12O6+6O2+6H2O. Based on
this equation, CO2, H2O, and light energy (sunlight) are the limiting
factors of this reaction. If any of them become accessible at a pace
slower or lower than the usual, the rate of photosynthesis is expected to
become slow based on the pace of the slowest factor. For example, if
CO2 concentration becomes scarce (e.g. due to closure of stomatal
openings in response to elevated temperatures in the environment), the
rate of photosynthesis becomes slow even if H2O and light energy levels
are amply available. The same result will occur if light energy becomes
less available or less intense, the rate of photosynthesis will be slower
despite the abundance of CO2 and H2O. Light becomes a limiting factor
in photosynthesis when the plant is unable to collect light, for instance,
Shelford’s law of tolerance
The law of tolerance was developed in 1913 by American zoologist
Victor Ernest Shelford. It states that the success of an organism depends
on a complex set of environmental conditions (environmental factors).
And that organism would have definite minimum, maximum,
and optimum environmental factors that determine success.(3) These
signify the limit of tolerance of that organism. However, the tolerance
ranges may vary within the same organism, for example depending on
the life stage (larval vs. adult).