Session 3

Faculty of Business, Finance, and
Information Technology
Lecture 3
Scientific research in business
If its important to you, you will find a way. If its not, you’ll find an excuse.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-1
Copyright by Ms Syikin@ 1 1
Scientific Research
• A process of rigorous reasoning based on interactions among theories
methods, and findings;
• Builds on understanding derived from the objective testing of models or

theories;
• Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious, plodding, circuitous,

and indirect;
• Scientific knowledge is developed and honed through critique contested

findings, replication, and convergence;
• Scientific knowledge is developed through sustained efforts;
• Scientific inquiry must be guided by fundamental principles.

Fundamental Principles (NRC, 2002)
I. Ask significant questions that can be answered
empirically.
• “The formulation of a problem is often more

essential than it’s solution, which may be merely
a matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To
raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard
old questions from a new angle, requires
creative imagination and marks real advance in
science” (Einstein & Infeld, 1938);
• The research questions must be asked in a way
that allows for empirical investigation.

Fundamental Principles (cont’d)
II. Link research to relevant theory.
• Scientific research can be guided by a

conceptual framework model, or theory
that generates questions to be asked or
answers to the questions posed;
• Theory drives the research question, the

use of methods, and the interpretation of
results.

III. Select and apply research designs and methods
that permit direct investigation of the question.
• The trustworthiness of any research study is

predicated initially on several major elements:
oThe suitability of the proposed research design or

methodology to address the specific questions
posed by the study;
oThe scientific rigor by which the methodology is

applied;
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall
Copyright by Ms Syikin@
1-5
5 5
• The trustworthiness of any research study is
predicated initially on several major elements
(cont’d):
o The link between question and methodology

must
be clear and justified;
o Detailed description of the method, measures,

data collection procedures, data
analyses, and subjects must be available to
permit replication.
IV. Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning
that can be replicated.
•What assumptions underlying the inferences

were made? Were they clearly stated and justified?
•How was evidence judged to be relevant?
•How were alternative, competing hypotheses,

and explanations identified, considered, and
accounted for (accepted or discarded)?
IV. Provide a coherent and explicit chain of reasoning
that can be replicated (cont’d).
• How were the links between data and the
conceptual or theoretical framework made?
• The chain of reasoning depends upon the design

which depends on the type of question:
oDescription – what is happening?

oCause – is there a systematic effect?
oProcess/mechanism- why or how does the
effect occur?
V. Replicate and generalize across studies.
• Internal Validity: The observations made are
consistent an generalize from one observer to
another, from one task to a parallel task from one
measurement occasion to anther occasion.
oStatistical methods – e.g. correlation;

oNon-statistical methods – e.g. triangulation,
comparative analysis.
• External Validity: The extent to which the treatment

conditions and participant population reflect the
“world” to which generalization is desired. 1-9
VI. Report research publicly to encourage
professional scrutiny, critique and replication.
• Criticism is essential to scientific progress;
• The extent to which new findings can be

reviewed contested, and accepted or rejected by
scientific peers depends upon accurate,
comprehensive, and accessible records of:
oData
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oMethods
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Common Conceptions/Misconceptions About
Scientific Quality and Rigor
• Experimental research is more “scientific” than
descriptive or qualitative research…
o NOT TRUE: The type of design/method does

not render the study scientific.

Common Conceptions/Misconceptions About Scientific
Quality and Rigor (cont’d)
 A study is deemed to be “scientific” when:
o There are a clear set of testable questions underlying the design;
o The methods are appropriate to answer the questions and falsify

competing hypotheses and answers;
o The study is explicitly linked to theory and previous research;
o The data are analyzed systematically and with the appropriate

tools;
o The data are made available for review and criticism.

Common
Conceptions/Misconceptions
 Research in education is fundamentally different
than in the “hard” sciences.
o NOT TRUE: Scientific research in education, psychology, biochemistry,
astrophysics, cultural anthropology, mathematics, etc., all:
o Seek conceptual/theoretical understanding;
o Pose empirical and testable and refutable hypotheses;
o Design studies that test and rule out competing
counter hypotheses;
o Use observational methods that are linked to theory

and can be publicly assessed for accuracy;
o Recognize the importance of independent replication
1-13
Features Common To Educational Research
• It is a challenge to design and implement randomized treatments
and repeated measures under highly controlled conditions;
• “Double-blind” controls are not feasible when using particular

designs;
• The level of certainty of research conclusions is lower than in the

physical sciences;
• Error limits associated with scientific inferences are larger in

social, behavioral, and educational research than in the physical
sciences;
• The influential role of context makes interpretation of data “messy”;

Qualitative Quantitative
The aim of qualitative analysis is a In quantitative research we classify
complete detailed description. features, count them, and construct
statistical models in an attempt to
explain what is observed.
The design emerges as the study All aspects of the study are carefully
unfolds designed before data is collected.
Researcher is the data gathering Researcher uses tools (questionnaires
instrument. or equipment) to collect data.
Data is in the form of words Data is in the form of numbers and
(interviews), pictures (videos), or statistics.
objects (artifacts).
Qualitative data is more rich, time Quantitative data is more efficient,
consuming, and less able to be able to test hypotheses, but may miss
generalized.
Copyright by Ms Syikin@ contextual data. 15 15
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Selection of topic

2. Reviewing the literature

3. Development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks

4. Clarification of research question/hypothesis

5. Research design

6. Data collection

7. Data analysis

8. Drawing conclusions
STAGE 1. SELECTION OF TOPIC
1. A crucial stage, as an inappropriate topic or question will

often lead to irretrievable difficulties later in the research.
2. It is unlikely that you will develop a final question and set of

objectives at this stage of the research process, and stages
2 and 3 are important in developing and assessing your
question more fully.

STAGE 2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE
• A literature review essentially consists of critically reading,

evaluating and organising existing literature on the topic to
assess the state of knowledge in the area.
• During this stage you should aim to become an ‘expert’ in

your field of research.
• Generally done alongside the development of the theoretical

and conceptual frameworks (stage 3 of the research
process).

STAGE 3. DEVELOPMENT OF THEORETICAL AND
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
• As you read the literature, you should be continually

developing and refining your theoretical and conceptual
frameworks.
• Your theoretical framework refers to the underlying

theoretical approach that you adopt to underpin your study.
• The conceptual framework defines and organises the

concepts important within your study.

STAGE 4. CLARIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
QUESTION
Initial research questions are chosen, investigated and

often rejected for a number of reasons, for example:
• The question lacks sufficient focus.

• The conceptual framework has identified problems in
either defining and/or measuring the appropriate concepts.
• There are too many moderating or intervening variables.
• The project is unfeasible in terms of complexity, access,
facilities or resources.
STAGE 5. RESEARCH DESIGN
• What data do I need to collect to answer this question?

• What is the best way to collect this data?
• What overall research design should I use? For example,
a cross-sectional, experimental or longitudinal design?
• Will I need to collect primary or secondary data?
• What methods, for example interviews, questionnaire
surveys and so on, will be best to collect the primary data?

• Who should participate in the research?
• How will I gain access to them?
• What are the exact procedures that I should adopt in
my data collection to ensure reliability and validity?
• Are there any ethical issues associated with the
research?

STAGE 6. DATA COLLECTION
You have to consider

• which methodology to choose, and
• which methods to utilise.

STAGE 7. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE
FINDINGS
1. The data you collect in stage 6 needs to be analysed to
provide answers to your research question.
2. In your discussion of the results, reference should also
be made back to the literature reviewed in stage 2, for
example
• How do the findings add to this literature?
• Do they support the literature?
• If not, what are the possible reasons why?

STAGE 8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
• Conclusions should relate back to the focused research

question.
• You can evaluate how successful you have been in
achieving your research objectives, and highlight the
strengths and weaknesses of the research.
• You may also want to make recommendations for further
research.

SUMMARY
1. Research is not just about the collection of data. Data
collection is important, but it is simply part of a wider
process – the research process.
2. The research process follows 8 steps: selection of topic,
reviewing the literature, developing your theoretical and
conceptual frameworks, clarifying your research question,
developing a research design, collecting data, analysing
data, and drawing conclusions.
3. Relating your project to the research process will allow
you to develop and answer your research question in a
logical and systematic manner.

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Faculty of Business, Finance, and

• Builds on understanding derived from the objective testing of models or

• Accumulation of scientific knowledge is laborious, plodding, circuitous,

• Scientific knowledge is developed and honed through critique contested

• Scientific knowledge is developed through sustained efforts;

• Scientific inquiry must be guided by fundamental principles.

• “The formulation of a problem is often more

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-3

• Scientific research can be guided by a

• Theory drives the research question, the

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-4

• The trustworthiness of any research study is

oThe suitability of the proposed research design or

oThe scientific rigor by which the methodology is

o The link between question and methodology

o Detailed description of the method, measures,

•What assumptions underlying the inferences

•How was evidence judged to be relevant?

•How were alternative, competing hypotheses,

• The chain of reasoning depends upon the design

oDescription – what is happening?

oStatistical methods – e.g. correlation;

• External Validity: The extent to which the treatment

• Criticism is essential to scientific progress;

• The extent to which new findings can be

o NOT TRUE: The type of design/method does

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-11

 A study is deemed to be “scientific” when:

o There are a clear set of testable questions underlying the design;

o The methods are appropriate to answer the questions and falsify

o The study is explicitly linked to theory and previous research;

o The data are analyzed systematically and with the appropriate

o The data are made available for review and criticism.

o Use observational methods that are linked to theory

• “Double-blind” controls are not feasible when using particular

• The level of certainty of research conclusions is lower than in the

• Error limits associated with scientific inferences are larger in

• The influential role of context makes interpretation of data “messy”;

1. A crucial stage, as an inappropriate topic or question will

2. It is unlikely that you will develop a final question and set of

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-17

• A literature review essentially consists of critically reading,

• During this stage you should aim to become an ‘expert’ in

• Generally done alongside the development of the theoretical

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-18

• As you read the literature, you should be continually

• Your theoretical framework refers to the underlying

• The conceptual framework defines and organises the

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-19

Initial research questions are chosen, investigated and

• The question lacks sufficient focus.

• What data do I need to collect to answer this question?

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-21

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-22

You have to consider

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-23

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-24

• Conclusions should relate back to the focused research

Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall 1-25

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