Chapter 1

Chemistry AP
 Science
Science is a way of looking at the world around us.

Latin – Scientia - Knowledge

Science involves:
1. Doing experiments
2. Making Observations
3. Collecting Data
4. Establishing Facts
5. Finding Relationships between observations, facts and data.
6. Attempting to explain observations, facts and data.
 Science
Science is often described in terms of the following organization:

Social Sciences Natural Sciences

Sociology Life Sciences
Economics •Biology

Political Science Physical Sciences

•Chemistry
Psychology
•Physics

Earth/Space Science
 Natural Sciences

Physical Sciences Biological Sciences

mistry
Geology Astronomy Physics Chemistry
Bioche Botany

Analytical Physical Organic Inorganic Microbiology

analysis energy carbon non-carbon Molecular

Genetics

Ecology

Physiology

Zoology
Steps in the Scientific Method
1. Observations
-quantitative
-qualitative
2. Formulating hypotheses
- possible explanation for the observation
3. Performing experiments
- gathering new information to decide
whether the hypothesis is valid
Outcomes Over the Long-Term
Theory (Model)
-A set of tested hypotheses that give an
overall explanation of some natural
phenomenon.
Natural Law
- The same observation applies to many
different systems
- Example - Law of Conservation of Mass
 Law v. Theory

A law summarizes what happens;

a theory (model) is an attempt to
explain why it happens.
 Nature of Measurement
Measurement - quantitative observation consisting of 2 parts
Part 1 - number
Part 2 - scale (unit)

Examples:
20 grams
6.63   Joule seconds
 International System
(le Système International)

Based on metric system and units

derived from metric system.
The Fundamental SI Units
Physical Quantity Name Abbreviation
Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol
Luminous Intensity candela cd
 Derived Units

Units that are created based on formulas and

equations
• Volume,V = l·w·h = m·m·m = m3
• Area, A = l·w = m·m = m2
• Force, F = m·a = kg·m·s-2 = Newton, N
• Work, W = F·d = N·m = Joule, J
• Pressure, P = F/A = N·m-2 = Pascal, Pa
 Measurement Devices

Mass - Balance
Length – Metric Ruler
Time – Clock
Temperature – Thermometer
Volume – Graduated Cylinder, Pipette, Buret,
Volumetric Flask
Uncertainty in Measurement

A digit that must be estimated is

called uncertain. A measurement
always has some degree of
uncertainty.
 Recording measurements

Record all certain digits

Record 1st estimated digit

Each mark = 1 mL so
estimate to the tenths
place value
 Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy refers to the agreement of a

particular value with the true value.

Precision refers to the degree of

agreement among several elements of
the same quantity.
None accurate and nor precise

Not accurate but Precise

Accurate and Precise

 Types of Error

Random Error (Indeterminate Error) -

measurement has an equal probability of
being high or low.

Systematic Error (Determinate Error) -

Occurs in the same direction each time
(high or low), often resulting from poor
technique.
 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Overview

1. Nonzero integers
2. Zeros
- leading zeros
- captive zeros
- trailing zeros
3. Exact numbers
 React 1

Measure your text with a ruler and determine

the following:
» Length in ft.
» Width in ft.
» Length in cm
» Width in cm
» Perimeter in cm
» Area in cm2
Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details

Nonzero integers always count as

significant figures.

3456 has
4 sig figs.
 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details

Zeros
-Leading zeros do not count as
significant figures.

0.0486 has
3 sig figs.
 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details

Zeros
- Captive zeros always count as
significant figures.

16.07 has
4 sig figs.
 Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details
Zeros
- Trailing zeros are significant only
if the number contains a decimal
point.

9.300 has
4 sig figs.
Rules for Counting Significant
Figures - Details

Exact numbers have an infinite number

of significant figures.

1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly

Rules for Significant Figures in
Mathematical Operations

Multiplication and Division: # sig figs in

the result equals the number in the least
precise measurement used in the
calculation.

6.38  2.0 =
12.76  13 (2 sig figs)
Rules for Significant Figures in
Mathematical Operations

Addition and Subtraction: # sig figs in

the result equals the number of decimal
places in the least precise measurement.

6.8 + 11.934 =
22.4896  22.5 (3 sig figs)
 Dimensional Analysis

Proper use of “unit factors” leads to proper

units in your answer.

1 kilometer 0.62137 mile

OK: 
0.62137 mile 1 kilometer

1 kilometer 1 mile
NOT OK: 
0.62137 mile 0.62137 kilometer
 React 3

What data would you need to determine the

money you would spend on gasoline to
drive your car from New York to Chicago.

Use the internet to get estimated values and

give an example calculation.
 Temperature

Celsius scale =C

Kelvin scale = K
Fahrenheit scale =F
 Temperature

TK  TC  27315
.

9 F
TF  TC   32 F
5 C
 React 4

At what temperature does ºC = ºF? Prove

your answer mathematically.
 Density

Density is the mass of substance per unit

volume of the substance:

mass
density =
volume
 Matter: Anything
occupying space and
having mass.
 Classification of Matter

Three States of Matter:

Solid: rigid - fixed volume and shape
Liquid: definite volume but assumes the
shape of its container
Gas: no fixed volume or shape - assumes
the shape of its container
 Types of Mixtures

Mixtures have variable composition.

A homogeneous mixture is a solution
(for example, vinegar)
A heterogeneous mixture is, to the
naked eye, clearly not uniform (for
example, a bottle of ranch dressing)
 React 5

Sketch a magnified view(showing

atoms/molecules) of each of the following:
» a. a heterogeneous mixture of two different
compounds.

» b. a homogeneous mixture of an element and a

compound.
 Separation Techniques

Can be isolated by separation methods:

- Chromatography
Paper, Column, Thin layer
- Filtration
- Distillation
 Pure Substances

Compound: A substance with a

constant composition that can be
broken down into elements by
chemical processes.
Element: A substance that cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances by chemical
means.