• Modern functional research in

neurobiology and prospects for its

development

Prepared by: Abitayeva Aisulu

Dalabaeva Aigerim
Eralieva Symbat
Checked : Tashenova Gulnara
 Plan:

1 Modern Neuroscience as an integrative science

2 Fundamentals of modern neuroscience

3 The main directions of neuroscience

4 The future of neuroscience (unsolved problems)

5 Studies of brain plasticity in various types of pathological processes

in the brain and in aging
 Introduction

Neuroscience is a branch of biology and is the science of the structure, physiology

and functions of the brain.
Literally, the term "neurobiology" is associated with the biology of neurons (nerve
cells) that make up the nervous system. However, in addition to neurons, the
mammalian brain includes a large number of diverse glial cells (called neuroglia),
which occupy up to 90% of the brain volume. Neuroglia cells interact closely with
neurons, ensuring their vital activity and normal functioning. In recent years,
neurobiology has also been studying the properties of neuroglia cells and their
interaction with neurons in providing a variety of functions.
Abroad (and in recent years in Russia), the science of the brain is also called
"neuroscience" (English, neuroscience). Although formally this term should be
translated as "the science of the nervous system", in terms of its content and the
range of problems studied, the latter is equivalent to "neurobiology".
The beginnings of neurobiology date back to ancient times, however, its modern
content is associated with research and discoveries since the middle of the XIX
century. In Russian scientific practice, neurobiology has emerged at the junction of
behavioral science and neurophysiology and as an independent discipline has been
mentioned recently.
 Modern Neuroscience as an integrative science

Currently, neuroscience is an interdisciplinary science that includes some scientific areas in

psychology, medicine, mathematics, computer science, physics, linguistics and philosophy. Within
the framework of modern neuroscience, a wide range of problems are studied, including various
approaches to the study of molecular, ontogenetic, structural, functional, evolutionary, medical
and cybernetic aspects of the central nervous system and its key role in controlling the behavior of
organisms. These problems can be studied using analytical tools of a whole range of biological
sciences, including biophysics, molecular and cellular biology, genetics, embryology, anatomy and
physiology, behavioral biology, as well as psychology. The technologies used in neuroscience are
extremely diverse - from biophysical and molecular methods of studying individual cells, ion
channels, membrane receptors, cellular organelles to visualization of perceptual, integrative and
motor processes of the whole brain using magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography.
Recent theoretical advances in neuroscience have given impetus to the research of neural
networks, which are the basis for approaches to the creation of artificial intelligence. The task of
neurobiology is to integrate a variety of information obtained at different levels of analysis of the
central nervous system into a coherent understanding of its structure and functions. The
expansion of the range of problems of neuroscience with the involvement of a large number of
scientists from a wide variety of scientific fields in the study of the brain has contributed to the
creation of special international scientific communities. For example, the International Brain
Research Organization was founded in 1960, and in 1968. – European Society for the Study of the
Brain and Behavior (European Brain and Behavior Society), in 1969 – the Society for Neuroscience
of the USA (Society for Neuroscience, USA).
 Fundamentals of modern neuroscience
In the second half of the 20th century,
research on the nervous system received a
significant boost thanks to revolutionary
advances in molecular and cellular physiology,
neurophysiology and information technology.
As a result, our information about the
microanatomy and physiology of neurons,
molecular processes in their cytoplasm and
organelles, as well as interneuronal
communications has been significantly
enriched. However, the role of neural
networks in providing intelligence, thinking,
consciousness, emotions, organization of
purposeful behavior and a number of other
manifestations of the psyche remains
completely unexplored.
Many morphological and functional types of
neurons and glial cells have been identified in
the brain. Despite the fact that glial cells were
first described by R. Virchov in the middle of
the XIX century, for many decades the
functions of these cells remained poorly
understood, and they were attributed only an
auxiliary role. Currently, our understanding of
the structure and functions of glia has
significantly expanded. It turned out that glial
cells have many properties that are inherent
in neurons. The nervous system is formed by
networks that consist of a variety of neurons
and glial cells. These neural networks make up
the primary modules of the nervous system
that process specific types of information.
Such neural modules form discrete
anatomical formations in the brain that
perform certain functions. Neuroscience is
designed to investigate the functioning of
such modules at several levels - molecular,
cellular, systemic and behavioral.
At the molecular level, within the framework
of neurobiology, (1) intracellular mechanisms
of synthesis of signaling molecules are
studied; (2) intracellular cascades initiated by
signaling molecules; (3) mechanisms of
integration of intracellular events leading to
activation of a neuron with subsequent
release of neurotransmitters. At this level of
research methods of molecular biology and
genetics study the processes of development
and death of neurons and the influence of
genetic factors on the biological functions of
neurons. Of particular interest are the
mechanisms that change the morphology,
molecular identity and physiological
properties of neurons, and how such changes
subsequently cause modifications of various
forms of behavior. On the other hand, equally
important are the mechanisms that change
the functions of the neuron with the
individual experience of the organism, and
how these changes cause processes at the
physiological and behavioral levels.
At the cellular level, fundamental physiological and electrochemical mechanisms of processing various signals representing various chemical and electrical influences,
as well as mechanisms of transformation of these signals addressed to the membranes of dendrites, bodies and axons of neurons are studied. A kind of "neural code"
of each neuron is the pattern of electrical signals generated by it and neurotransmitter specificity. Another important area of neurobiology at the cellular level is the
study of the development of the nervous system. The problems that face in this area include: (1) regional subdivision of the developing nervous tissue with the
subsequent formation of specialized structures; (2) proliferation of stem cells; (3) their differentiation into different types of neurons and glial cells; (4) migration of
neurons; (5) development of processes (dendrites and axons); (6) trophic interaction of nervous system cells; and (7) formation of synaptic contacts.

At the system level, they study the problems of how anatomical and functional neural formations formed during development specialize to perform certain functions,
such as reflexes, integration of sensory signals, coordination of movements, regulation of circadian rhythms, emotional reactions, learning, memory and many others.
It is still an unsolvable mystery how some neurons become sensitive to visual and others to auditory signals, and how these neurons enable us to subjectively sense
light and sound. Such problems were posed in the middle of the XIX century by Y.-P. Muller in his "theory of specific energy". Within the framework of neuroethology,
the specificity of neural populations in providing certain behavioral acts in animals is investigated, and within the framework of neuropsychology, the role of various
cortical zones in providing mental functions in humans is investigated. Within the framework of neurobiology, the mechanisms of interaction of the nervous system
with the endocrine and immune systems are also studied.

At the cognitive (cognitive) level, neural mechanisms in the provision of cognitive activity in humans are investigated. For this purpose, modern methods of visualizing
the state of the brain (magnetic resonance and positron emission tomography), as well as traditional electroencephalography are widely used in solving complex
mental tasks. The purpose of such studies is to establish a correspondence between the activated areas of the brain and mental processes.
Neuroscience and medicine. Such medical fields as neurology, neurosurgery, neuropathology and psychiatry study disorders in the nervous system. Various diseases
are natural models of brain dysfunctions, the study of which contributes to the development of ideas about brain functions and ways to treat these diseases.
Neuroscience and humanities. Neuroscience is closely related to psychology and sociology. Advances in neural network research allow the use of neural-like models in
economics, for solving artificial intelligence problems and decision-making, as well as in social sciences. The achievements of neuroscience are also in demand in
philosophy, which sets the task of comprehending the purpose of the mind. Philosophy tries to explain the essence of the psychic by comparing the philosophical
dyad "thought-idea" and the neurobiological dyad "structure-function".
 The main directions of neuroscience

Neurobiology of behavior. The subject of the

study are: behavior genetics, biological
psychology, regulation of circadian rhythms,
neuroethology, hypothalamic-pituitary
mechanisms of behavior regulation, maintenance
Currently, there are several main areas of research in neuroscience. However, such
of homeostasis, sexual dimorphism, sensory
a division is conditional, and in real scientific practice, the areas of interest overlap
significantly. systems, motor control systems, hormonal
Molecular and cellular neurobiology. The subject of the study are: ultrastructure of regulation, substance dependence (for example,
neurons and glial cells, protein metabolism, synapses, ion channels, action narcotic and alcoholic).
potentials and postsynaptic potentials, neurotransmitters, intracellular signaling Systemic neurobiology. The subject of the study
pathways, interaction of the nervous and immune systems. are: physiology of sensory systems, analysis of
complex sensory-specific signs, physiology of
motor systems, sensory integration, pain and its
sensation, spontaneous and induced electrical
activity, functional states (sleep, wakefulness,
etc.), maintenance of homeostasis, motivation,
nonspecific activation (arousal), attention.
Developmental neurobiology. The subject of the study are: proliferation of cells in the brain, neurogenesis, formation of neural processes,
migration of neurons, growth factors, neurotrophins, apoptosis and antiapoptosis, synaptogenesis.
Cognitive neuroscience. The subject of the study are: arbitrary selective attention, consciousness (understanding), cognitive control, cognitive
genetics, decision-making, motivations and emotions, language functions, memory, activity, perception, social aspects.

Theoretical and computational neuroscience. The subject of the research is: modeling of the generation of nerve impulses (for example, action
potentials in the Hodgkin-Huxley model) and their conduction along nerve processes (cable theory), modeling of synaptic interaction and
synaptic integration, neural networks and their computer simulation, modeling of learning (for example, according to the Hebb rule).
Neurobiology in neurology and psychiatry. The subject of the study are: autism, dementia, Parkinson's disease, brain apoplexy, peripheral
neuropathy, traumatic lesions of the brain and spinal cord, autonomic disorders, psychoses, schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, addictions,
memory disorders, sleep disorders.

Applied Neuroscience. The subject of the study are: sensory and motor neuroprostheses, biofeedback, brain-computer interface.
Neurolinguistics. The subject of the research are: language functions, expression of oral speech, language acquisition, perception of oral and
written speech, analysis of syntactic constructions.

Neuroimaging (English, neuroimaging). The subject of the study are: structural and functional visualization of the brain.
These directions do not exhaust the range of problems studied in the framework of modern neuroscience. Some of the directions largely
overlap with each other.
The future of neuroscience (unsolved problems)
Despite certain advances in neuroscience, some important problems still remain unresolved and
require further research. The most distant prospects for solving problems concern cognitive
processes. Questions about the neural mechanisms of consciousness, sleep, perception, learning
and memory, neuroplasticity, and decision-making remain unresolved before modern neuroscience.
Many unresolved issues concern the development and evolution of the nervous system. The neural
mechanisms of the occurrence of some mental illnesses (for example, obsessive states,
schizophrenia), Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and addictions have not yet been fully
investigated.
Below are only 10 mysterious properties of the brain that need to be solved in the future:
1. How is information encoded in neural activity patterns?
2. How is information stored and retrieved from memory?

3. What does the background electrical activity of the brain reflect?

4. How does the brain simulate the future?
5. What are emotions?
6. What is intelligence?
7. How is time represented in the brain?
8. Why does the brain sleep, and what are dreams?
9. How do specialized brain systems interact with each other?
10. What is consciousness?
Neuroscientists constantly work in close cooperation with scientists from other scientific fields, and
the success of solving many problems facing neuroscience depends on this interaction.
Studies of brain plasticity in various types of pathological processes in the
brain and in aging
Neuroplasticity (plasticity of the brain) refers to the ability of various
parts of the central nervous system to reorganize due primarily to
structural changes in the brain substance. The conducted
neurophysiological and neuroanatomic studies on animals, as well as
functional methods of mapping the human brain, have provided
indisputable evidence of the ability of the adult individual's cerebral
cortex to a significant functional restructuring.
Currently, the mechanisms of neuroplasticity are being studied on the
basis of molecular studies of receptor-ligand relationships, functional
synaptology, new methods of neuroimaging, computational
neurophysiology and other approaches. In our country, the leading
institution in this area was the Brain Research Institute of the Russian
Academy of Medical Sciences, which, after the reorganization that
took place in 2006, became one of the main departments within the
Research Institute of Neurology of the Russian Academy of Medical
Sciences. The reorganized Research Institute of Neurology of the
Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, which also has its own priority
fundamental developments on the problem of neuroplasticity
(functional biofeedback, topographic mapping of the brain, functional
MRI, etc.), plans further active development of work in this promising
direction. Serious research on the problem of neuroplasticity is also
being conducted at the SSC Institute of Biomedical Problems and
some other scientific centers in Russia.
In the coming decades, we can expect the disclosure of the nature of
the functioning of the main signaling pathways of neurons in response
to various damaging effects, as well as the main patterns and
dynamics of synapsoarchitectonics in the central nervous system, the
establishment of patterns of structural and functional restructuring of
neural networks as the basis of brain plasticity.
The establishment of molecular, ultrastructural, pathochemical and
neurophysiological mechanisms of brain plasticity and the
development of ways to control these processes will significantly
improve the outcomes of acute and chronic brain lesions, reduce the
level of disability and improve the outcomes of rehabilitation
treatment in neurology.
 Development of lifetime methods of visualization of
brain structure, metabolism, blood flow and
electrogenesis
Neuroimaging remains the most important area of clinical neurology. In recent
years, impressive progress has been made in the lifetime determination of
subtle anatomical changes in brain matter, features of cerebral blood flow,
metabolic shifts in various parts of the brain, which was facilitated by the
introduction into practice of such special research methods as diffusion- and
perfusion-weighted MRI, functional MRI, MR spectroscopy, MR tractography, CT
perfusion, etc. In our country, the leading centers developing these technologies
in neurology and neurosurgery are the N.N. Burdenko Research Institute of
Neurosurgery of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, the Research
Institute of Neurology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, the S.M.
Kirov Military Medical Academy (St. Petersburg).
It can be predicted that the coming years will be characterized by further
development of methods of lifetime neuroimaging.
At the same time, one of the main and new directions will be the development
of various molecular markers (tracers) that allow us to assess the distribution of
individual molecular targets in certain subpopulations of neurons and glial cells,
for example, markers of b-amyloid in Alzheimer's type pathology, markers of
individual protein subunits of brain receptors, etc.
The result of the practical development of these technologies is a qualitatively
new level of diagnosis of diseases of the central nervous system, including at the
presymptomatic stage of the pathological process, an increase in its specificity
and sensitivity along with an improvement in the quality of therapy.
Forecasts are not always fully implemented, however, they set some guidelines
for certain sciences, help to better understand further ways of developing
research, and contribute to the concentration of efforts on the most significant
scientific areas. If the presented forecasts are able to implement these functions
to a certain extent, the authors will consider their task completed.
 Conclusion
• The most important factor determining the main trends in the development of neurology in recent years were the results of the implementation of the
international program "Decade of the Brain" (1990-2000). The development of neurology at the beginning of the XXI century was significantly
influenced by the technological revolution of recent years in a number of high-tech fields, primarily in molecular biology and modern biotechnologies,
molecular genetics, biological chemistry, computer and information technologies. All this has led to a significant re-equipment of the methodological
base of research conducted in the world, as well as to a rethinking of the ideology and scientific foundations of almost all sections of modern neurology.
The emergence of new disciplines at the junction of various fundamental sciences (gene diagnostics and gene therapy, artificial intelligence,
neuroimaging, neuroimmunology, neurotransplantation, pharmacogenetics, etc.) was reflected in the creation of a fundamentally new concept of
neuroscience as a complex of disciplines studying the problems of brain functioning in normal and pathological conditions. At present, the successes of
fundamental neuroscience have become the most important driving factor in the overall progress of modern biology and medicine.
• It seems that the most important scientific areas on which the main attention of researchers in the field of clinical and experimental neurology will be
concentrated in the next two decades may be:
• - disclosure of molecular, ultrastructural, pathochemical and neurophysiological mechanisms of brain plasticity in various types of pathological
processes in the brain and in aging;
• - functional genomics and proteomics of congenital and multifactorial diseases of the nervous system, gene expression management and gene therapy;
• - cellular technologies and the problem of neurotransplantation;
• - development of neuroprotection methods (including preventive) for acute cerebral ischemia and chronic progressive diseases of the central nervous
system;
• - pharmacogenetics of diseases of the nervous system;
• - development of new experimental models of diseases of the nervous system (including on transgenic animals and cell cultures and tissue);
• - creation of molecular vaccines; development of fundamentally new methods of treatment of neurodegenerative diseases aimed at abnormal protein
folding;
• - further development of lifetime methods of visualization of the structure, metabolism, blood flow and electrogenesis of the brain.
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