Computer Networks

Chapter 2- Physical Layer

• Data and Transmission techniques
• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media (Guided / Unguided)
• Asynchronous Communication
• Wireless transmission (electromagnetic spectrum)
• ISDN, ATM
• Cellular Radio
• Switching Techniques issues
Computer Networks

Transmission Media

• Transmission media are actually located below

the physical layer and directly controlled by
physical layer
• Medium can be broadly defined as anything that
can carry information from S -> D
• Transmission medium is usually free space,
metallic cable, fiber optic cable
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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WCB/McGraw-Hill  The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998
Figure 7-4 and 7-5
Twisted-Pair Cable

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Figure 7-6

Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines

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Figure 7-7
Noise on Twisted-Pair Lines

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Figure 7-8

Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

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Figure 7-9
UTP Connectors

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Figure 7-10

Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

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Figure 7-11 and 7-12
Coaxial Cable

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Figure 7-13

Refraction

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Figure 7-14

Critical Angle

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Figure 7-15

Reflection

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Figure 7-16

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Figure 7-17

Multimode Step-Index

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Figure 7-18

Multimode Graded-Index

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Figure 7-19
Single Mode

• light can propagate only in a straight line without bouncing

• more expensive but are widely used for longer distances
• Currently available single-mode fibers can transmit data at
100 Gbps for 100 km without amplification.
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Figure 7-20

Fiber Construction

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 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Computer Networks
Wireless Transmission
Computer Networks

Radio Transmission
• (RF) waves are easy to generate
• It can travel long distances,
• It can penetrate buildings easily
– so they are widely used for communication both
indoors and outdoors.
• Radio waves also are Omni directional,
– meaning that they travel in all directions from the
source, so the transmitter and receiver do not have
to be carefully aligned physically.
Figure 7-21
Radio Communication Band

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Figure 7-22
Propagation Types

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 • VLF, LF, and MF bands, Radio waves follow the ground
• These waves can be detected for perhaps 1000 km at the
lower frequencies
• AM radio broadcasting uses the MF band

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• HF and VHF bands, the waves that reach the ionosphere,
a layer of charged particles circling the earth at a height of
100 to 500 km, are refracted by it and sent back to earth
• Under certain atmospheric conditions, the signals can
bounce several times.
• military also communicate in the HF and VHF bands.
Computer Networks

Microwave Transmission
• Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in nearly straight lines and
can therefore be narrowly focused, Concentrating all the
energy into a small beam by means of a parabolic antenna
– (like the familiar satellite TV dish)
• transmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately aligned
with each other.
• multiple transmitters lined up in a row to communicate with
multiple receivers in a row without interference
• microwaves do not pass through buildings/ hard object.
Figure 7-34
Satellite Communication

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Figure 7-31

Terrestrial Microwave

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Figure 7-32

Parabolic Dish Antenna

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Infrared Transmission
• infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication
– For e.g. Remote controls used for televisions
• They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build

• Drawback- they do not pass through solid objects

• No government license is needed to operate an infrared system

• Infrared communication has a limited use on the desktop,

– connect notebook computers and printers with the IrDA
(Infrared Data Association)
Computer Networks

Light Transmission
• infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication
• Application : to connect LANs of two buildings via lasers mounted
on their rooftops.
• Optical signaling: Laser is unidirectional
– so each end needs its own laser and its own photo detector.
• very high bandwidth at very low cost
• Relatively secure :- it is difficult to tap a narrow laser beam.
• Easy to install and, & not require a license.
• Weakness: wind and temperature changes can distort the beam
and laser beams also cannot penetrate rain or thick fog
• they normally work well on sunny days.
Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems. A
bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.
 End of session

?
Thanks.

Self exercise
Q- Advantages and drawbacks of Wireless media
Q- Compare wired and wireless media