UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

Institute of Technology
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Computer Aided Power System Analysis(CAPA)
Chapter 1 Introduction

By Dawit Adane
 CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Electrical energy is the most preferred used form of energy.
Why? B/c
 can be easily and efficiently transported from the
production centers to the point of use.
 is highly flexible in use as it can be converted to any
desired form like mechanical, thermal, light, chemical etc.
1.1 The Structure of Electrical Power System
• A power system is divided into three parts: generation,
transmission and distribution system.
1.1.1 Generation
 Electricity is conventionally produced by converting the
mechanical energy (i.e. thermal or hydro energy) into
electrical energy using synchronous generators by
induction principle.
 Thermal energy sources are coal, natural gas, nuclear fuel
and oil.
 Non-conventional/renewable energy sources for electricity
generation is wind, solar, tidal, and geothermal and biogas.
 The power generated at low voltage (i.e. from 11-35 kV)
fed into the transmission system after using a step up
transformer.
1.1.2 Transmission System
 forms the back bone of the power system.
 interconnects all the generating stations and major load
centers in the system.
 The transmission lines operate at the highest voltage levels
(i.e., 220 kV and upwards) in order to reduce the power
loss and voltage drop.
 It has a meshed structure in order to provide many alternate
routes for the power to flow from the generators to the load
points. This improves the reliability of the system.
 connect the neighboring power systems at transmission
levels, thus forming a grid (network of multiple generating
resources and several layers of transmission network).
Advantages of interconnected power systems:
(a) Quality: The voltage profile of the transmission network
improves as more generators contribute to the system, resulting in
an increased total system capability. This also improves the
frequency behavior of the system following any load perturbation
due to increased inertia of the system.
(b) Economy: In interconnected systems, it is possible to reduce
the total set of generating plants required to maintain the desired
level of generation reserve. This results in reduction of
operational and investment costs. Also, operational (including
plant start-ups and shut down) and generation scheduling of units
can be more economically coordinated.
(c) Security: In case of emergency, power can be made available
from the neighboring systems and each system can benefit even
when individual spinning reserves may not be sufficient for
isolated operation.
1.1.3 Distribution System
 the final stage of power transfer to the individual consumer.
 generally connected in a radial structure.
 The primary distribution feeders having voltage ranges
between 11 kV and 33 kV supply small industrial
customers.
 The secondary distribution feeders supply residential and
commercial at 415/240 V.
 Medium and small generating plants located near the load
centers are usually connected to sub-transmission or
distribution system directly which is normally called
Distributed Generation System.
Structure of a Power System
Distributed and Dispersed Generation
• It is the use of small-scale power generation technologies
located close to the load being served (on-site), capable of
lowering costs, improving reliability, reducing emissions and
expanding energy options.
• Can be standalone/autonomous or grid connected based on the
requirement
Distributed Generation
• Many small generating units ranging from 2 – 50 MW
• Installed on site and deliver power to small number of
consumers nearby
• Can be solar, wind turbines, mini/micro hydro turbines, gas
turbines, combined cycle or heat and power plants, grid
connected power storage units
Dispersed Generation
• Smaller generating units of less than 1 MW output and often
sized to serve individual homes and businesses (micro gas
turbines, fuel cells, small wing and PV generators, biogas)
• Has been used for emergency backup power source for
reliability reinforcement.
• Modular, flexible , portable and relocatable
Centralized and Decentralized Control in Existing Power
Systems
Purpose of controls
• To maintain system voltages and frequency and other system
variables within their acceptable limits, in response to normal
load and generation variations as well as large disturbances.
Centralized controls
 Generation scheduling and dispatch
 Automatic generation control for frequency regulation
 Real and reactive power flow adjustments to resolve
congestions or reduce loss
Decentralized controls
 Generator governor response
 Automatic voltage regulation
 Protection relays
Comparison of the Characteristics of Two Control Philosophies
Response time
• Decentralized control is much faster and suitable for improving
system frequency response or resolving frequency and voltage
stress of the system.
• Centralized control is slower and can not follow the fast changes
of regulation signal but is suitable for load following service and
spinning reserve.
Predictability
• Response from decentralized control is more complicated and
harder to predict.
• Response from centralized control is close-to-linear, in terms of
load change vs. temperature setting adjustment
Reliability, complexity…
Smart Grid
• Transmission and distribution grids in industrialized countries
are aging and being stressed by operational uncertainties and
challenges never envisioned when they were developed many
decades ago. The smart grid technology is the answer to the
uncertainties and challenges.
• A smart grid is not a single concept but rather a combination of
technologies and methods intended to modernize the existing
grid in order to improve flexibility, availability, energy
efficiency, and reduced costs.
• It is an electricity network that can intelligently integrate the
action of all users connected to it – generators, consumers and
those that assume both roles – in order to efficiently deliver
sustainable, economic and secure electricity supplies.
A smart grid is characterized by the following attributes:
1. Self-healing from power system disturbances;
2. Enables active participation by consumers in demand response;
3. Operates resiliency against both physical and cyber attacks;
4. Provides quality power that meets 21st century needs;
 5. Accommodates all generation and energy storage technologies;
6. Enables new products, services, and markets; and
7. Optimizes asset utilization and operating efficiency.
 The objective of a smart grid is to provide reliable, high-quality
electric power to digital societies in an environmentally friendly
and sustainable manner
The smart grid technologies and concepts
 Distributed energy resources (generation and storage)
 Intelligent metering
 Advanced distributed and autonomous controls,
 Flexible power architectures.
 Advanced and distributed communications
 Grid modernization.
Organizational Structure of Power System Industry
There are two organizational structures of electric power supply
industry.
Vertically Integrated (regulated) – older, monopolistic structure
Only one company or government agency (mostly state-owned)
produced, transmitted, distributed and sold electric power and
services.
generation not subjected to competition and there is no choice of
suppliers.
Provision of electric power based on cost-of-service regulation.
Upgrade in technology, quality and reliability of electric power
supply is limited
had an obligation to serve all of its customers and the electricity
rates were set by the regulating entity in each state.
Customer is captive and has no access or role in power industry
market
Horizontally Integrated (deregulated) – conceptually come recently
in early 1990s.
Designed to encourage competition and provide customers the
choice of electricity suppliers
The objectives of electric utility restructuring are to increase
competition, decrease regulation, to improve the continuity of
supply and the quality of services, to promote efficiency and
economy of the power system and in the long run lower consumer
Provides fertile ground for the growth of embedded generation.
The first primary requirement (structure) for deregulation is the
unbundling of the entire power system into Generating Companies
(Gencos.), Transmission Companies (Transcos.), Distribution
Companies (DistCos.), Independent Power Producer (IPP),
Independent System Operator (ISO), Power Exchange (PX) and
Retail Energy Service Companies (RESCos.). The role and
responsibility of each company must be clearly defined.
Was driven by reduction in capital, operational and maintenance
cost, satisfaction of customer service and privatization leading
palatable to potential investors
The important concepts of deregulation are
Competition: The competition is at two levels in deregulated power
industry: Wholesale (generation) and retail (distribution).
Deregulation: The rules governing the electric power industry are
changed. The new structure introduces competition into the market,
in place of a few large regulated companies.
Open Access: In deregulation of power system the Independent
Power Producers (IPP) are permitted to transmit the power using
utility transmission and distribution systems.
The benefits associated with deregulation are:
• Systems capacity will be used efficiently.
• Optimization of energy supply will takes place.
• Price of the electricity will become clearer.
• Consumer choice will be improved.
• Bad technologies are ignored and good technologies are replaced
in their place.
• Electricity prices are reduced.
• The usage efficiency is improved due to restructuring in price
signals.
• Power flow will takes place from surplus areas to shortage areas.
• The cost of ancillary services is reduced by reserve sharing.
1.2 Power System Operation and Control
A power system operates in a normal state, if the following
conditions are satisfied:
• The bus voltages are within the prescribed limits.
• The system frequency is within the specified limits.
• The active and reactive power balance exists in the system.
Operation and control action Time period
1 Relaying execution control, system voltage control Multi seconds
2 System frequency control, tie-line power control Few seconds to few minutes
3 Economic dispatch Few minutes to few hours
4 System security analysis Few minutes to few hours
5 Unit commitment Few hours to few weeks
6 Maintenance scheduling One month to one year
7 System planning One year to 10 years
Various elements of power system operation and control
A properly designed and operated power system must meet the
following requirements:
(a) The system must have adequate capability to meet the
continuously varying active and reactive power demand of system
load. This requires maintaining adequate spinning reserve of active
and reactive power at all time instants.
(b) The system should be designed and operated so as to supply
electrical energy at minimum cost and with minimum adverse
ecological impact.
(c) The electrical power supplied to the consumers must meet
certain minimum quality standards with respect to the following:
i) The network frequency should be maintained within a range of
±3 percent of its ‘nominal’ value.
ii) The voltage magnitudes should be maintained within a range of
±10 percent of the corresponding ‘nominal’ value at each
network bus bar.
iii) The supply should meet a desired level of reliability to ensure
supply continuity as far as possible.
(d) It should maintain scheduled tie-line flow and contractual
power exchange.
Why constant or low tolerance in the range of frequency?
Frequency fluctuations are harmful to electrical appliances.
– Speed of three phase ac motors proportional to the frequency.
(N=120f/p)
– The blades of steam and water turbines are designed to operate at
a particular speed. Frequency variation leads to speed variation
and results in mechanical vibration
Why constant voltage?
- Electric motors will tend to run on over speed when they are fed
with higher voltages resulting vibration and mechanical damage.
- Over voltage may also cause insulation failure.
- For a specified power rating, lower voltage results in more current
and this results in heating problems. (P=VI)
- Net power surplus lead
to frequency increases
- Net power shortage lead
to frequency decreases
ΔP Δf
- Surplus Q generated
lead to terminal V
increase
- Shortage in Q lead to
terminal V decrease
ΔQ ΔV
1.2.1 Generating Unit Controls
 consist of prime mover control or load frequency control
(LFC) and excitation control or automatic voltage control
(AVC).
 An increase in the active power as well as reactive power
demand of the load results in the reduction of frequency
and terminal voltage respectively.
1.2.1.1 Load Frequency Control
• maintaining the real power balance by adjusting the turbine
input power.
consists two feedback loops:
1. The primary LFC loop senses the generator speed and
accordingly controls the turbine input. A faster loop and
operates in the order of seconds.
• provides only a coarse frequency control.
2. The secondary LFC loop senses the system frequency and tie-
line power. Fine tunes the frequency back to the nominal value.
a slower loop and may take minutes to eliminate frequency
error.
- PI or I controller used & Connected to economic dispatch
system
1.2.1.2 Under Frequency Load Shedding (UFLS) - demand
side control.
To prevent extended operation of separated areas at low frequency,
load shedding schemes are employed.
A typical scheme for USA:
•10% load shed when frequency drops to 59.2 Hz
•15% additional load shed when frequency drops to 58.8 Hz
•20% additional load shed when frequency reaches 58.0 Hz
1.2.1.3 Automatic voltage control - primary source of voltage
support
 Control of voltage levels is carried out by controlling the
production, absorption, and flow of reactive power
 AVR continuously adjusts excitation to control armature voltage
 Voltage error signal is generated due to imbalance in reactive
power demand and supply w/c then amplified and applied to the
excitation control system to control generator field current. This
results in an increase/decrease in the generated emf leading to
compensate the reactive power generation and the terminal
voltage is brought back to its nominal value accordingly.
Additional voltage control means in the system (secondary) :
• sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors,
shunt reactors, synchronous condensers and static-var-
compensators (SVCs)
• line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors
• regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers &
boosters
Generator controls
1.2.2 Economic Dispatch
• Power systems need to be operated economically to make
electrical energy cost-effective to the consumer and profitable
for the operator.
The operational economics of power generation and delivery can
be divided into two sub-problems.
a) The problem of minimum power generation cost is solved
using economic dispatch.
b) The economic dispatch and minimum loss problems can be
solved by means of optimal power flow (OPF) method.
1.2.3 Unit Commitment
It is not economical to run all the units available during light load
condition. The problem of unit commitment is to determine in
advance, the start and the shut down sequence of the available
generators such that the load demand is met and the cost of
generation is minimum.
1.2.4 Maintenance Scheduling
• Preventive maintenance has to be carried out on power system
components to ensure that they continue to operate efficiently
and reliably.
• Generators maintenance have to be so scheduled such that the
available generation is sufficient to meet the system load
demand.
• The problem of maintenance scheduling deals with the
sequencing of generator maintenance such that sufficient
generation is always available to meet the load demand and the
cost of maintenances and cost of lost generation is minimum.
 1.3 Power System Security Analysis and Contingency
Evaluation:
The power system operating conditions/states are classified into
five: normal, alert, emergency, in extreme and restorative.

Power system state transition diagram

1. Normal state: all the system variables are within the normal
range (no overloaded equipment) - secured state.
- Both ‘equality’ and ‘inequality’ constraints being satisfied.
- The system has adequate spinning reserve.
2. Alert state: The system variables are still within limits but the
security level falls below specified threshold - insecure.
- Caused by a single contingency, large increase in system load or
adverse weather conditions.
- Preventive control steps taken to restore generation or to
eliminate disturbance to restore the system to normal state.
e.g., generation shifting (security dispatch) , Increased reserve
- Occurrence of a contingency in alert state system, cause
overloading of equipments and the system enter into emergency
state or extremis state directly if the disturbance is very severe.
3. Emergency state: equality constraints still satisfied and the
system remains in synchronism however inequality constraints
violated and Some components are overloaded.
- The transition to this state can occur either from normal state or
alert state.
- Emergency control actions like disconnection of faulted section,
re-routing of power excitation control, generation tripping and
load curtailment have to be taken.
4. In-extremis state: the system enters into in-extremis state if
the emergency control actions fail.
- All the constraints are violated.
- The system starts to disintegrate into sections or islands.
- Overloaded generators start tripping leading to cascade outages
and possible ‘blackout’.
- load shedding and controlled system operation are taken to save
the system from a widespread blackout.
5. Restorative state: represents a condition in which control
action is being taken to restart the tripped generators and restore
the interconnections.
- control action is being taken to reconnect all the facilities and to
restore system integrity.
- The system transition can be either to normal or alert state
depending on system conditions.
- An extremely time consuming process and may last for hours or
may be days.
 Equality constraint – Bus MW and Mvar power balance,
Generator Voltage Setpoint
 Inequality constraint – Generator real power limits,
Generator reactive power limits, Transmission Line and
Transformer (Branch) MVA Limits, Bus Voltage Angle,
system frequency.
 1.4 Power System Planning
To meet ever increasing load demand, the major tasks in planning:
 new power systems have to be built or
 the existing power systems have to expanded by adding new
generators and transmission lines.
1. Explain about the operational states of a power system? Show
the necessary relationships between them using schematic
diagram?
2. What are the requirements of a good power system?
Future Trends in Power System
• Uncontrollable (distributed) generation of electricity
• Use of DC generation system and renewable energy
• Relatively low power (small scale) but many generation of
electricity at/near load center
• Bidirectional power flow–Centralized generation
Distribution system
• Electricity storage system will play important role