Design & Analysis of Experiments

ME-433
Professional Elective-I
 UNIT – I

Introduction
Introduction

Experimental design is the process of planning a study to meet

specified objectives.
Planning an experiment properly is very important in order to
ensure that the right type of data and a sufficient sample size and
power are available to answer the research questions of interest as
clearly and efficiently as possible.
Because the validity of an experiment is directly affected by its
construction and execution, attention to experimental design is
extremely important.
 Strategy of Experimentation

Observing a system or process while it is in operation is an important part of

the learning process, and is an integral part of understanding and learning about

how systems and processes work.

The great New York Yankees catcher Yogi Berra said that “. . . you can

observe a lot just by watching.” However, to understand what happens to a

process when you change certain input factors, you have to do more than just

watch—you actually have to change the factors.

 This means that to really understand cause-and-effect relationships in a

system you must deliberately change the input variables to the system and

observe the changes in the system output that these changes to the inputs

produce.

In other words, you need to conduct experiments on the system.

Observations on a system or process can lead to theories or hypotheses about

what makes the system work, but experiments of the type described above are

required to demonstrate that these theories are correct.

Investigators perform experiments in virtually all fields of inquiry, usually to

discover something about a particular process or system.

Each experimental run is a test. More formally, we can define an

experiment as a test or series of runs in which purposeful changes are made

to the input variables of a process or system so that we may observe and identify

the reasons for changes that may be observed in the output response.

We may want to determine which input variables are responsible for the

observed changes in the response, develop a model relating the response to the

important input variables and to use this model for process or system

improvement or other decision-making.

As you can see from the foregoing discussion, experiments often involve several factors.
Usually, an objective of the experimenter is to determine the influence that these
factors have on the output response of the system. The general approach to planning
and conducting the experiment is called the strategy of experimentation. An
experimenter can use several strategies.
Some Typical Applications of Experimental Design

Experimental design methods have found broad application in many

disciplines. experimentation as part of the scientific process and as one of the
ways by which we learn about how systems or processes work. Generally, we
learn through a series of activities in which we make conjectures about a
process, perform experiments to generate data from the process, and then use the
information from the experiment to establish new conjectures, which lead to
new experiments, and so on.
Experimental design is a critically important tool in the scientific and
engineering world for improving the product realization process. Critical
components of these activities are in new manufacturing process design and
development, and process management.
The application of experimental design techniques early in process development

can result in

 Improved process yields

 Reduced variability and closer conformance to nominal or target requirements

 Reduced development time

 Reduced overall costs.

Experimental design methods are also of fundamental importance in engineering

design activities, where new products are developed and existing ones improved.

Some applications of experimental design in engineering design include

 Evaluation and comparison of basic design configurations

 Evaluation of material alternatives

 Selection of design parameters so that the product will work well under a wide

variety of field conditions, that is, so that the product is robust

 Determination of key product design parameters that impact product

performance

 Formulation of new products.

 Simple Comparative Experiments

An engineer is studying the formulation of a Portland cement mortar. He has

added a polymer latex emulsion during mixing to determine if this impacts the
curing time and tension bond strength of the mortar.
The experimenter prepared 10 samples of the original formulation and 10
samples of the modified formulation.
We will refer to the two different formulations as two treatments or as two
levels of the factor formulations.
When the cure process was completed, the experimenter did find a very large
reduction in the cure time for the modified mortar formulation. Then he began to
address the tension bond strength of the mortar. If the new mortar formulation
has an adverse effect on bond strength, this could impact its usefulness.
Basic Statistical Concepts
Experimental Variable and Its Classification

Variables are things that change.

The independent variable is the variable that is purposely

changed. It is the manipulated variable.

The dependent variable changes in response to the independent

variable. It is the responding variable.

Be sure to operationally define each variable.

Strategy of Experimentation
Why do we design experiments?

Maximize:

Probability of having a successful experiment.

Information gain: the results and conclusions derived depend on the
way information was collected.
Minimize
Unwanted effects from other sources of variation.
Cost of experiment if results are limited.
 What would be an alternative?

Observational study:
• The researcher has little to no control over sources of variation and
simply observes what is happening.
• The researcher can only determine information about how our inputs
are related to the outputs… we cannot determine causation.
Examples:
• Surveys
• Weather Patterns
• Stock market price
• etc.
http://fluxicon.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/observeandreport.jpg
 Designed experiment

• The researcher identifies and controls sources of variation that

significantly impact the measured response.
• The researcher can gather evidence for causation.

Correlation ≠ Causation
 But what are sources of variation?

Sources of variation are anything that could cause an observation to be

different from another observation.
Two main types:
• Those that can be controlled and are of interest are called treatments
or treatment factors.
• Those that can influence the experimental response but in which we
are not directly interested are called nuisance factors.
 Rule of Thumb

List all major and minor sources of variation before collecting the data,
classifying them as either a treatment or a nuisance factor.

• We want our design to minimize the impact of minor sources of

variation, and to be able to separate effects of nuisance factors from
treatment factors
• We want the majority of the variability of the data to be explained
by the treatment factors.
 Difference Between Field Experiments and Laboratory Experiments

Laboratory Experiments

 Laboratory experiments is mainly used in science subjects such as physics,

chemistry, medicine, biology etc.
 Experiment requires two variables, one independent variable and the other
dependent variable.
 It is important that in Laboratory experiments the independent variable is
manipulated and the effect of manipulation is observed on the dependent
variable.
 All other extraneous factors are completely controlled within the laboratory.
 Field Experiments

 Field experiments on the other hand refer to experiments conducted in real life
situations.
 Here the control of extraneous factors is not possible as it is a natural setting
and there is no way to control any factor so absolutely as one does in the
laboratory experiments.
 Hence in field experiments we take two groups matched for a number of factors
such as age, sex, education, socio-economic status etc.
 Both these groups are in real life setting and thus are subjected to similar
extraneous variables and thus the experimenter can observe the effects of his
manipulation on one group and compare with the other group which is not
subjected to any intervention.
Laboratory Experiments Field Experiments
The subjects are homogeneous. The subjects may vary in a number
of characteristics.
The experimental subjects are in controlled The subjects are not in controlled but in natural
conditions. settings and conditions.
One experimental group is taken and subjected to Two groups matched for certain basic
the manipulation of the independent variable characteristics which may confound the results are
(Intervention) and see the effects of it on the taken and one is subjected to intervention while
subjects of the experimental group. the other is not. At the end the results of two
groups on a dependent variable are compared
to see the effect of intervention.
The cause effect relationship can be clearly The cause effect relationship can be established to
established as in the laboratory experiment all quite an extent but not to the same accuracy of
extraneous factors are controlled and the pure experimental research as extraneous factors are
effects of intervention can be studied. not controlled as in the laboratory.
Predication based on the experiment is possible Prediction is possible to certain extent as the real
and one can even accurately predict a life situation may not be the same in all places
phenomenon given the same conditions. where the study is conducted.
The experiment is always quantitative in terms of The field experiment is both qualitative and
results. quantitative in terms of results.
The experiment is replicable. The field experiments are replicable but may
require modifications in terms of the matching
factors.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Experiments

The advantages or the strength of field experiments are given below:

 It is useful to behavioral and social scientists such as the social psychologists,
sociologists and educationists.
 It is an appropriate method for studying complex social influences, processes,
and changes in life like setting. The dynamics and small groups have been
fruitfully studied by this method.
 It is most suited method to the testing of theory and to the solution of practical
problems.
 It is suited to testing broad hypotheses.
 Flexibility and applicability to a wide variety of problems are also possible by
this method.
Weaknesses or limitations of field experiments are as given below:

 The chances of extraneous variables confounding the research findings are

more in field experiments due to the uncontrolled extraneous variables.

 One of the problems is the negative attitude of researcher.

 Consent and cooperation of concerned subjects and the institutional

authorities, (the institution where the research is to be conducted) is required

for the field experiment.

 This type of research faces lack of precision problem.