Fluid Mechanics

(ACEC03)
Civil Engineering Department

Durga Sharma
Assistant Professor
 Application of Fluid Mechanics

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 Organization Related to Fluid Mechanics

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 Course Overview

Fluid Mechanics is a branch of physics concerned with the

mechanics of fluids, the forces acting on them and basic
understanding on fluid properties, fluid dynamics, fluid flow in
closed and open conduits. This course majorly consists of analyzing
incompressible fluids in pressure systems, enables to work and
formulate the models necessary to study and analyze fluid systems.
Further, this course helps to understand the concepts in Hydraulic
Machinery and Water Resources Engineering.

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 COURSE PRE-REQUISITES:

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 Mark Distribution

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 EVALUATION METHODOLOGY

The course will be evaluated for a total of 100 marks, with 30

marks for Continuous Internal Assessment (CIA) and 70 marks
for Semester End Examination (SEE). Out of 30 marks allotted for
the CIA during the semester, marks are awarded by taking an
average of two CIA examinations or the marks scored in the
make-up examination.
Semester End Examination (SEE): The SEE is conducted for 70
marks of 3 hours duration. The syllabus for the theory courses is
divided into five modules and each module carries equal
weightage in terms of marks distribution. The question paper
pattern is as follows. Two full questions with “either”, “or” choice
will be drawn from each module. Each question carries 14 marks.
There could be a maximum of two subdivisions in a question.

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Reference Books for Course
Fluid Mechanics
(ACEC03)

Module1

Introduction
to Fluid
9
Module - 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS (12)

Distinction between a fluid and a solid;

Properties of fluids, intrinsic and extrinsic,

Newton law of viscosity with classification,

Cavitation, surface tension, capillarity,

Bulk modulus of elasticity, and compressibility.

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 Definition

Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both

stationary and moving bodies under the influence of forces.
The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called
statics, while the branch that deals with
bodies in motion is called dynamics.
The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined as the science that deals
with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at
the boundaries.

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Definition
 The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.
 The study of f1uids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered,
is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered
for the fluids in motion. that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
 Fluid mechanics itself is also divided into several categories.
 The study of the motion of fluids that are practically incompressible
(such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds) is usually
referred to as hydrodynamics.
 A subcategory of hydrodynamics is hydraulics, which deals with liquid
flows in pipes and open channels.

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Definition

 Gas dynamics deals with the flow of fluids that undergo significant
density changes, such as the flow of gases through nozzles at high
speeds.
 The category aerodynamics deals with the flow of gases (especially
air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or
low speeds.
 Some other specialized categories such as meteorology,
oceanography, and hydrology deal with naturally occurring flows.

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What is a Fluid?

 A substance exists in three primary phases: solid, liquid, and gas. A substance in the
liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid.

 Distinction between a solid and a fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s ability to
resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that tends to change its shape.

 A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid deforms
continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how small.

 In solids stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids stress is proportional to strain

rate.

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 What is a Fluid?

 When a constant shear force is

applied, a solid eventually stops
deforming, at some fixed strain
angle, whereas a fluid never
stops deforming and approaches
a certain rate of strain.

Figure.
Deformation of a rubber eraser
placed between two parallel plates
under the influence of a shear
force.
1
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 What is a Fluid?
 In a liquid, molecules can move relative to each
other, but the volume remains relatively constant
because of the strong cohesive forces between
the molecules.
 As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a
larger container in a gravitational field.
 A gas, on the other hand, expands until it
encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space.
 This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them
are very small.
 Unlike liquids, gases cannot form a free surface

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Application areas of Fluid Mechanics
 Mechanics of fluids is extremely important in many areas of engineering and
science. Examples are:
 Biomechanics
Blood flow through arteries and veins
Airflow in the lungs
Flow of cerebral fluid
Households
Piping systems for cold water, natural gas, and sewage
Piping and ducting network of heating and air- conditioning systems
 Meteorology and Ocean Engineering
Movements of air currents and water currents
 Chemical Engineering
Design of chemical processing equipment

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 Application areas of Fluid Mechanics

Mechanical Engineering
Designof pumps,turbines, air-conditioning
equipment, pollution-control equipment, etc.
Design and analysis of aircraft, boats, submarines, rockets, jet
engines, wind turbines, biomedical devices, the cooling of electronic
components, and the transportation of water, crude oil, and natural
gas.
Civil Engineering
Transport of river sediments
Pollution of air and water
Design of piping systems
Flood control systems

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 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density.
Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a
f1uid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called
density. It is denoted the symbol ρ (rho). The unit of mass density in SI
unit is kg per cubic meter, i.e ., kg/m3.
The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases
changes with the variation of pressure and temperature.
Mathematically mass density is written as.

Massof fluid
ρ =
Volume of fluid
 The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.
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 Properties of Fluids
Density or Mass Density.
The density of a substance, in general, depends on temperature and
pressure.

The density of most gases is proportional to pressure and inversely

proportional to temperature.

Liquids and solids, on the other hand, are essentially incompressible

substances, and the variation of their density with pressure is usually
negligible.

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 Properties of Fluids
Specific weight or Weight Density.
Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio
between the weight of a fluid to its volume.
Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight
density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
Mathematically,

Weight of fluid (Massof fluid) x Accelerati on due to

w=
gravity Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
Massof fluid x g
=
Volume of fluid
w=ρg
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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Volume.
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the
volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or
volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific
volume.
Mathematically, it is expressed as

Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass

density. It is expressed as m3/kg.
It is commonly applied to gases.
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 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or
density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard
fluid.
For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the
standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative
density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.

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 Properties of Fluids

Example 1.
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one
liter of a liquid which weighs 7 N.

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Solution to Problem
 Properties of Fluids

Example 2. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of

one liter of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7

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Properties of Fluids
 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of the fluid.
When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart move one over the
other at different velocities say u and u+ du as shown in Fig.
1.1 , the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress
du×dt
acting between the fluid layers:
u+du
dy
dɵ
u

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 Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower
layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent top layer.
This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol τ called
Tau.
Mathematically,

or

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 Properties of Fluids
where μ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality
and is known as the coefficient of dynamic viscosity or
only viscosity.
du
 dy represents the rate of shear strain or rate of
shear or velocity gradient.
deformation
From equation (1.2) we have

Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress

required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
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 Properties of Fluids
Unit of Viscosity.
The unit of viscosity is obtained by putting
the dimension of the quantities in equation
( 1.3)

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 Properties of Fluids
Kinematic Viscosity.
It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and
density of fluid.lt is denoted by the Greek symbol (ν) called
'nu' . Thus, mathematically,

The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s.

Newton's Law of Viscosity.
It states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant
of proportionality is called the co-efficient viscosity or
dynamic viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given
by equation (1 . 2).
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Unit of Pressure, Force , Dynamic
viscosity, Kinematic Viscosity
Unit of Viscosity

One stoke is equivalent to one poise divided by the density of

the fluid in g/cm3. The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is square
meters per second (m2/s). 
 CGS units
Quantity In coherent SI
Quantity CGS unit name Unit symbol Unit definition
symbol units
length, position L, x centimetre cm 1/100 of metre 10−2 m
1/1000 of 
mass m gram g 10−3 kg
kilogram
time t second s 1 second 1 s
centimetre per
velocity v cm/s cm/s 10−2 m/s
second
acceleration a gal Gal cm/s2 10−2 m/s2
force F dyne dyn g⋅cm/s2 10−5 N
energy E erg erg g⋅cm2/s2 10−7 J
power P erg per second erg/s g⋅cm2/s3 10−7 W
pressure p barye Ba g/(cm⋅s2) 10−1 Pa
dynamic viscosity μ poise P g/(cm⋅s) 10−1 Pa⋅s

kinematic viscosity ν stokes St cm2/s 10−4 m2/s

wavenumber k kayser (K) cm−1[10] cm−1 100 m−1

 Properties of Fluids
 Fluids which obey the above relation i.e. equation 1.2 are known as Newtonian
fluids and the fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-
newtonian fluids.

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

 The viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the
viscosity of gases increases with increase of temperature. This is due to reason that
the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum
transfer.
 In liquids the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer due
to closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive
forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity.
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 Example 3

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38
 Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity.
If the specific gravity of a fluid
is known, then the density of the
fluid will be equal to specific
gravity of fluid multiplied by the
density of water.
For example the specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence
density of mercury
= 13.6 x 1000 = 13600
kg/m3.

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 Example 4
Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for
lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an
inclined plane with angle of inclination 30o as shown in Fig. 1.4.
The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the
inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness
of oil film is 1.5 mm.

Fig.1.4

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41
 Example 5
The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with
oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil
film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre
per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed.
Determine : ·
i.the dynamic viscosity of the oil, and
ii.the kinematic viscosity of the oil if the specific gravity of the
oil is 0.95.

Solution. Given:
Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.6 m Area A= 0.6 x
0.6 = 0.36 m2
Thickness of oil film dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper u = 2.5 m/s
42 plate
43
Practice Question 1
Practice Question 2
Practice Question 3
Practice Question 4
Practice Question 5
where
K = Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (Pa, N/m2)
dp = differential change in pressure on the object (Pa, N/m2)
dV = differential change in volume of the object (m3)
V0 = initial volume of the object  (m3)
p0 = initial pressure (Pa, N/m2)
p1 = final pressure (Pa, N/m2)
V1 = final volume (m3)
The Bulk Modulus Elasticity can alternatively be expressed as
K = dp / (dρ / ρ0) 
   = (p1 - p0) / ((ρ1 - ρ0) / ρ0)   

where
dρ = differential change in density of the object   (kg/m3)

ρ0 = initial density of the object  (kg/m3)

ρ1 = final density of the object (kg/m3)

An increase in the pressure will decrease the volume (1). A decrease in the volume will increase the
density (2).
The SI unit of the bulk modulus elasticity is N/m2 (Pa)
The imperial (BG) unit is lbf/in2 (psi)
1 lbf/in2 (psi) = 6.894 103 N/m2 (Pa)
Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of
compressive stress to volumetric strain.

Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in the Fig.

Let V= Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder

p =Pressure of gas when volume is V

Let the pressure is increased to p+dp, the volume of gas decreases from V to V –dV.

Then increase in pressure = dp

Decrease in volume = dV

Volumetric strain = dV/V

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 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

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 Surface Tension and Capillarity
 Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the
contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension.

 Surface tension is created due to the unbalanced cohesive forces acting on the liquid
molecules at the fluid surface.

 Molecules in the interior of the fluid mass are surrounded by molecules that are
attracted to each other equally.

 However, molecules along the surface are subjected to a net force toward the
interior.

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 The apparent physical consequence of this unbalanced force along the surface is to
 Surface Tension and Capillarity
 A tensile force may be considered to be acting in the plane of the surface along any line
in the surface.
 The intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along any line in the surface is
called the surface tension.
 It is denoted by Greek letter σ (called sigma).
 The SI unit is N/m.

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 Surface Tension and Capillarity

Surface Tension on liquid Droplet and Bubble

 Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘R'. On the
entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface
tension will be acting.
 Let σ = surface tension of the liquid
 ΔP= Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside
pressure intensity)
 R= Radius of droplet.

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Surface Tension and Capillarity

 Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one
half (say left half) will be

 (i) Tensile force due to surface tension acting around the

circumference of the cut portion as shown and this is equal to
= σ x Circumference
= σ x 2πR

(ii) Pressure force on the area (π/4)d2 and

 = ΔP × πR2 as shown

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 Surface Tension and Capillarity
 These two forces will be equal and opposite under equilibrium
conditions, i.e.,

 A hollow bubble like a soap bubble in air has two surfaces in contact
with air, one inside and other outside. Thus two surfaces are subjected
surface tension.

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 Surface Tension……. Example 1

Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside
pressure is 2.5 N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.

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 Surface Tension……. Example 2

The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm 2
(atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface tension
is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.

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 Capillarity
Capillarity
Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface in a small tube
relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.

The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise while the fall of the liquid surface is
known as capillary depression.

The attraction (adhesion) between the wall of the tube and liquid molecules is strong enough
to overcome the mutual attraction (cohesion) of the molecules and pull them up the wall.
Hence, the liquid is said to wet the solid surface.

It is expressed in terms of cm or mm of liquid. Its value depends upon the specific weight of
the liquid, diameter of the tube and surface tension of the liquid.
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 Capillarity
Expression for Capillary Rise
Consider a glass tube of small diameter ‘d’ opened at both ends
and is inserted in a liquid, say water.

The liquid will rise in the tube above the level of the liquid.

Let h = the height of the liquid in the tube .

Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of the liquid of height h

is balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But
the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube is due to surface
tension.
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 Expression for Capillary Rise…

 Let σ = Surface tension of liquid

θ = Angle of contact between the liquid and glass tube

 The weight of the liquid of height h in the tube

= (Area of the tube x h) x ρ x g

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 Expression for Capillary Rise
Expression for Capillary Rise…
The value of θ between water and clean glass tube is
approximately equal to zero and hence cos θ is equal to
unity. Then rise of water is given by

 Contact angle depends on both the liquid and the solid.

 If θ is less than 90o, the liquid is said to "wet" the solid.
However, if θ is greater than 90o, the liquid is repelled by
the solid, and tries not to "wet" it.
 For example, water wets glass, but not wax. Mercury on the

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other hand does not wet glass.
 Capillarity

Expression for Capillary Fall

Let h = Height of depression in tube.
Then in equilibrium, two forces are acting on the
mercury inside the tube.
First one is due to surface tension acting in the
downward direction and is equal to σ x πd x cos θ.
Second force is due to hydrostatic force acting
upward and is equal to intensity of pressure at a
depth 'h' x Area

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 Capillarity

Expression for Capillary Fall

lf the glass tube is dipped in mercury, the level of mercury in the tube will be
lower than the general level of the outside liquid as shown above.

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 Capillarity

Expression for Capillary

Fall

Value of θ for mercury and glass tube is 128o

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 Capillarity…Example 1
Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when
immersed vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tensions σ
= 0.0725 N/m for water and σ = 0.52 N/m for mercury in contact with
air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact
= 130o.

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 Capillarity…Example 1

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 Capillarity…Example 2
 Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used
to measure water level if the capillary rise in the tube is to
be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface tension of water in
contact with air as 0.073575 N/m.

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 Fluid as a continuum - concept of continuum
• Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical
behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete
particles.

• A continuous and homogenous medium is called continuum. Any matter is

composed of several molecules continue concept assumes a continuous
distribution of mass within the matter with no empty space. In this approach,
fluid properties expressed as continuous functions of space and time.

• E.g. Distance between the molecules is one factor, is a function of molecular

density. If mean free path of molecules is very small as compared with
characteristic length in the flow domain (i.e. the molecular density is very high)
then that gas is treated as a continuous medium of matter.
 Fluid as a continuum - concept of continuum
Continuum concept of fluid is determined from the relative dominance between the mean free path of the
molecules (µ) and the characteristic length (L).

Mean free path is defined as the statistical average distance traveled by the molecules before their successive
collisions.

A non-dimensional number, connecting mean free path of the molecules (µ) and characteristic length (L) is
known as Knudsen number.

It is defined as Kn= µ/L

When Kn < 0.01, i.e., the mean free path is very less compared to characteristic length, then the continuum
concept holds good. Therefore all the fluid properties like density, viscosity, etc., are expressed as continuous
function space and time.
Fluid as a continuum - concept of continuum
Fluid as a continuum - concept of continuum
 No-slip Condition of Viscous Fluids

It has been established through experimental

observations that the relative velocity between the solid
surface and the adjacent fluid particles is zero whenever
a viscous fluid flows over a solid surface. This is known
as no-slip condition.

This behavior of no-slip at the solid surface is not same

as the wetting of surfaces by the fluids. For example,
mercury flowing in a stationary glass tube will not wet the
surface, but will have zero velocity at the wall of the tube.

The wetting property results from surface tension,

whereas the no-slip condition is a consequence of fluid
viscosity.
 Variation of Viscosity with temperature

For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity

depends strongly on temperature but varies very little
with pressure.

For liquids, molecular motion is less significant than the

forces of cohesion, thus viscosity of liquids decrease
with increase in temperature.

For gases, molecular motion is more significant than

the cohesive forces, thus viscosity of gases increase
with increase in temperature.
 Types of Fluid
Based on the property of viscosity, fluids may be classified
into the following types:

Ideal fluid or Perfect Fluid

This is a fluid where shear stresses do not exist whether the

fluid is at rest or in motion.

Non- viscous frictionless and incompressible.

Used in the mathematical analysis of flow problems.

Does not exists in reality.

Does not offer shear resistance when fluid is in motion

Types of Fluid
Types of Fluid
MODULE –II FLUID STATICS

Fluid Pressure: Pressure at a point,

Pascal’s law,
Pressure measuring devices
Piezometer
Different types of manometers and pressure gauges
Hydrostatic pressure for submerged bodies.
Buoyancy and stability of floating bodies.
 Fluid statics

Fluid statics is the study of fluid problems in which there is no

relative motion between fluid elements. With no relative motion
between individual elements (and thus no velocity gradients), no
shear can exist, whatever the viscosity of the fluid is. Accordingly,
viscosity has no effect in static problems and exact analytical
solutions to such problems are relatively easy to obtain. Hence, all
free bodies in fluid statics have only normal pressure
forces acting on them.
Fluid Pressure
Fluid Pressure
 Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure, also known as barometric pressure (after
the barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth.

The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as

101,325 Pa (1,013.25 hPa; 1,013.25 mbar), which is equivalent to 760 mm
Hg)

Atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic

pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point.
As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that
atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. 
 Pressure

Gauge pressure  is the pressure  relative to

atmospheric  pressure.  Gauge pressure  is
positive for pressures above
atmospheric pressure , and negative for
pressures below it.

Absolute pressure  is the sum of gauge

pressure  and atmospheric pressure.
 Pascal's Law : Pressure at a point
The Pascal's law states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions . Let us prove this
law by considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element shown in Fig.

Since the fluid is at rest, there will be no shearing stress on the faces of the element.
Let us consider the following terms as mentioned here
PX = Pressure acting in X- direction over the face AB
PY = Pressure acting in Y- direction over the face AC
PZ = Pressure acting in Z- direction over the face BC
θ = Angle ABC, as displayed above in figure
dx, dy and ds : Fluid element dimensions
ρ = Density of the fluid
Let us analyse here the forces acting on the fluid
element ABC
Force on the face AB, AC and BC
FAB = PX x Area of face AB = PX. dy. 1 = PX. dy
FAC = PY x Area of face AC = PY. dx. 1 = PY. dx
FBC = PZ x Area of face BC = PZ. ds. 1 = PZ. ds
Weight of the fluid element,
W = Volume x Density of fluid x acceleration due to gravity
W = Area x width of fluid element x Density of fluid x
acceleration due to gravity
W = (AB x AC/2) x 1 x ρ x g = (dy dx/2) x ρ x g
Considering the forces in X-direction
Px. dx- PZ. ds Sin (90- θ) = 0
PX. dy =  PZ. ds Cos θ
As we can see from above fluid element ABC,
dy = ds Cos θ
PX. dy =  PZ. dy
PX = PZ
Considering the forces in Y-direction
PY. dx - PZ. ds Cos (90- θ) - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0   
PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0   
As fluid element is very small and therefore, we can neglect
the weight of fluid element
PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ = 0   
As we can see from above fluid element ABC, dx = ds Sin θ
PY. dx - PZ dx = 0   
PY = PZ
 Pascal’s Law
From above two expressions mentioned in blue colour, we can
write following equation as mentioned here
PX = PY = PZ
We can say from above equation that pressure at any point in X, Y
and Z directions will be same.
Pascal’s Law provides the base for any hydraulic system or we can
say that complete hydraulic system is based on the principle of
Pascal’s Law. 

Change in pressure in one section of the system will be transmitted

without any loss to each and every portion of the fluid and to the
wall of containers.
Unit Test 1