Average Grade

When the mass diagram and the Horizontal line the roughly
project profile are plotted one divides the area
on top of the other, the average
haul grades of the earth moving
operation can be approximated.

Difference in
Elevations

18
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒= ×100 %=8.9 %
203
Rock and Soil Properties
Types of Geotechnical Materials:
Knowledge of the properties, characteristics, and
behavior of different soil types and aggregates is • Soil
important to both design and construction. • Rock

Design Structural Stability SOILS can be classified based on: Particle Sizes, Physical
Properties, Behavior As Moisture Content Varies
Construction Materials Handling

ROCKS was formed by one of three different means:

Density is the most commonly used parameter for Igneous Rocks – solidified from molten masses
specifying construction operations because there us a
direct correlation between an soil’s properties and its Sedimentary Rocks – formed in layers, settling out
density of water solution

Metamorphic Rocks – transformed from material of

the first two by heat and pressure
ASTM Soil Classification:

Gravel – is rounded or semi round particles of rock that will

pass 3-in. and be retained on a 2.0mm No. 10 sieves.

Sand – is disintegrated rock whose particles vary in from the

lower limit of gravel 2.00mm down to 0.074mm (No.200 sieve).
Coarse or Fine Sand.

Silt – is material finer than sand and thus its particles are
smaller than 0.074mm but larger than 0.005mm. Non-
cohesive, low strength, Poor in Compaction.

Clay – is a cohesive material whose particles are less than

0.005mm. High strength when dried, volume changes as
moisture content varies, it exhibits plasticity within a range of
water content.

Organic Matter – is a partly decomposed vegetation. Spongy,

Chemically Reactive, Very Unsuitable Material.
ASTM Soil Classification:
Towed Impact Compactor

Material Suitability: rock, sand, silt, and clay

This compactor has used three, four , and five-sided

drums. As the compactor is towed, the drum rotates,
lifting itself up on edge, and then falls back to earth. The
impact of the drum striking the ground provides the
compactive forces.

Compaction Wheels

Material Suitability: All types of soil

This equipment is usable for limited areas which are

inaccessible or hazard for men to work in. A compaction
wheel attached to an excavator is often used to achieve
compaction when backfilling utility trenches. Usually, the
compaction wheels are manufactured in sizes to fit 7- to
45-ton excavator.
Manually Operated Vibratory-Plate Compactors

Material Suitability: granular soils, crushed aggregate, and

asphalt concrete

This gasoline or diesel powered unit is rated by centrifugal

force, exciter revolutions per minute, depth of vibration
penetration (lift), foot-per-minute travel, and area of
coverage per hour. This type of compactor is either
manually as walk-behind unit or by remote control.

Manually Operated Rammer Compactors

Material Suitability: cohesive soil

This gasoline or diesel powered unit is used for

compacting cohesive or mixed soils in confined areas.
Rammers are self-propelled in that each blow moves them
ahead slightly to contact a new area.
Roller Production Estimating

The production formula for a compactor is

Where:

compacted width per roller pass in feet

average roller speed in mile per hour
compacted lift thickness in inches
number of roller passes required to achieve the required density

The computed production is compacted cubic yard (ccy), so it will be necessary

to apply a shrinkage factor to convert the production to bank cubic yards (bcy),
as that is how the excavation and hauling production is usually expressed.
For SI Unit System.

Where:

compacted width per roller pass in m

average roller speed in kilometers per hour
compacted lift thickness in mm
number of roller passes required to achieve the required density

The computed production is compacted cubic yard (ccm), so it will be necessary

to apply a shrinkage factor to convert the production to bank cubic yards (bcm),
as that is how the excavation and hauling production is usually expressed.
Example:

Estimate the production in bank cubic yards per hour for a roller if its average speed will be 8 mph and it will cover 7.33
ft in one pass. The job specifications limit the compacted lift thickness to 6 inches and require seven passes per lift. The
company usually figures production based on a 50-min hour.
Example:

Earth-whose in situ weight is 112 lb/cf, whose loose weight is 99 lb/cf, and whose compacted weight is 120 lb/cf – is
placed in a fill at the rate of 240 cy/hr, measured as compacted earth. The thickness of the compacted layers is 6 in. A
tractor pulls a towed sheepsfoot roller having drums, 5 ft wide, at speed of 2mph. Assume a 45-min hour operating
efficiency. Determine the number of drums required to provide the necessary compaction if eight drum passes are
specified for each layer of earth.

Calculate the Capacity of the sheepsfoot:

Calculate the number of drums:

Compaction Specification and Control
Maximum Dry Density/ Optimum Moisture
Prior to preparing the specifications for a project,
representative soil samples are usually collected and tested Laboratory-established Compaction Curve
in the laboratory to determine material properties.

1. Grain-size Analysis
The size of the grains and the distribution of those sizes are
important properties that affect a soil’s suitability.

2. Maximum Dry Density

From the curve, the maximum dry unit weight

(density) and the percentage of water required to
achieve maximum density can be determined. This
percentage of water, which corresponds to the
maximum (for a given compactive effort), is known as
the OPTIMUM WATER CONTENT. It is the amount of
water required for a given soil to reach maximum
density.
Proctor Test