Vision

Physiology

Suyasning HI
 Vision
Accessory structures of the eye

• Eyelids (palpebrae) separated by the

palpebral fissue
• Eyelashes
• Tarsal glands
• Lacrimal apparatus
• The eye can only
perceive a small portion
of the spectrum of
electromagnetic waves
 Vision
• In order to see an object:
- 1- the pattern of the object must fall on the vision
receptors (rods and cones in the retina) 
accommodation

- 2- the amount of light entering the eye must be

regulated (too much light will “bleach out” the
signals)

- 3- the energy from the waves of photons must be

transduced into electrical signals

- 4- The brain must receive and interpret the signals

External Features and Accessory Structures of the
Eye
 External Structures of the Eye

• Conjunctiva covers most of eye

• Cornea is transparent anterior portion
 Lacrimal Apparatus

• Secretions from the lacrimal gland contain

lysozyme
• Tears form in the lacrimal glands, wash across
the eye and collect in the lacrimal lake
• Pass through the lacrimal punctae, lacrimal
canaliculi, lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal duct
 The eye
• Three layers
– Outer fibrous tunic
• Sclera, cornea, limbus
– Middle vascular tunic
• Iris, ciliary body, choroid
– Inner nervous tunic
• Retina
The Sectional Anatomy of the Eye
 Internal Structures of the Eye

• Ciliary body
– Ciliary muscles and ciliary processes, which attach to
suspensory ligaments of lens
• Retina
– Outer pigmented portion
– Inner neural part
• Rods and cones
Sectional Anatomy of the Eye
 Regulation of the Amount of Light Entering the
Eye
• The iris controls the
amount of light
entering the eye
cavities
• The contraction of
radial or circular
smooth muscles
located within the iris
permit changes in the
pupil diameter
The Pupillary Muscles
• Retina contains rods and cones
Retina
– Cones densely packed at fovea (center of the macula lutea)
• Retinal pathway
– Photoreceptors to bipolar cells to ganglion cells, to the brain via the optic nerve
• Axons of ganglion cells converge at blind spot (optic disc)
– Horizontal cells and amacrine cells modify the signal passed along the retinal neurons
The Organization of the Retina
 Retinal structure

• Three cell layers:

-- outer layer:
photoreceptors- rods and
cones

-- middle layer: bipolar

neurons

-- inner layer: ganglion cells

The Organization of the Retina
 Eye Anatomy

• Ciliary body and lens divide the anterior cavity of

the eye into posterior (vitreous) cavity and
anterior cavity
• Anterior cavity further divided
– anterior chamber in front of eye
– posterior chamber between the iris and the lens
The Circulation of Aqueous Humor
 Fluids in the eye

• Aqueous humor circulates within the eye

– diffuses through the walls of anterior chamber
– passes through canal of Schlemm
– re-enters circulation
• Vitreous humor fills the posterior cavity.
– Not recycled – permanent fluid
 Eye Abnormalities
• Glaucoma • Cataract
 Lens

• Posterior to the cornea and forms anterior boundary of

posterior cavity
– Posterior cavity contains vitreous humor
• Lens helps focus
– Light is refracted as it passes through lens
– Accommodation is the process by which the lens adjusts to
focus images
– Normal visual acuity is 20/20
Image Formation
 Accommodation

• It is the process of adjusting the shape of the

lens so that the external image fall exactly on
the retina
Accommodation
Accommodation Abnormalities
 Accommodation Abnormalities

• Myopia
• Hyperopia
• Astigmatism: the cornea is irregular 
irregular pattern of vision
• Presbyopia: stiffening of the lens occurring
with aging  increased difficulty with near
vision
 Visual Physiology

• Rods – respond to almost any photon

• Cones – specific ranges of specificity
Rods and Cones
 Photoreceptor Structure

• Outer segment with membranous discs

• Narrow stalk connecting outer segment to inner segment
• Light absorption occurs in the visual pigments
– Derivatives of rhodopsin
 Phototransduction - General
• Photons hit the pigment of
a photoreceptor   
enzymes are activated in
the cell which modify its
state of polarization  the
signals are sent to visual
area of the occipital lobe of
the brain through the optic
nerve
Photoreception - In More Detail
Photoreception
Bleaching and Regeneration of Visual Pigments
 rhodopsin
cahaya
Vit A
gelap
lumirhodopsin

metharodhopsin

scotopsin + Retinen I

Skema metabolisme rhodopsin

 Color sensitivity

• Integration of information from red, blue and green

cones
• Colorblindness is the inability to detect certain colors
Warna komplementer : merupakan pasangan warna yang apabila
dikombinasikan dengan warna tertentu akan menimbulkan warna
putih. Tiap warna spektrum mempunyai pasangan tersendiri
(komplementernya sendiri) :
- merah -------- komplemennya ------------- biru kehijauan
- kuning ------- komplemennya -------------- indigo blue
- violet --------- komplemennya ------------- kuning kehijauan
- hijau ---------- komplemennya ------------- purple
Pada sensasi warna ada tiga hal yang karakteristik :
1. Ragamnya warna : tergantung dari gelombang cahaya
2. Terangnya warna : tergantung dari intensitas rangsangan
3. Saturasi (kepekatan) : tergantung dari banyak sedikitnya
warna putih yang menyertai
 Retinal Adaptation

• Dark adapted – most visual pigments are fully

receptive to stimulation
• Light adapted – pupil constricts and pigments
bleached.
 The Visual Pathway

• Large M-cells monitor rods

• Smaller more numerous P cells monitor cones
Convergence and Ganglion Cell Function
 Seeing in Stereo

• Vision from the field of view transfers from one

side to the other while in transit
• Depth perception is obtained by comparing
relative positions of objects from the two eyes
 Neural processing
• The bipolar neurons and ganglion cells
process the signal
• In the fovea where the acuity is the highest:
1 cone  1 bipolar cell  1 ganglion cell
• At the periphery: many rods  1 bipolar cell
… acuity is much decreased
• Other cells in the retina participate in signal
processing
Untuk melihat warna ada tiga teori :
1.Teori Young Helmholtz
2.Teori Hering
3.Teori Modifikasi

ad.1.Teori Young Helmholtz

Teori ini membuktikan adanya 3 sensasi warna primer yaitu merah, biru
dan hijau. Sesuai dengan teori ini maka dalam conus terdapat 3 macam
substansi photogen. Dalam satu conus mempunyai satu macam zat
photosensitive. Satu substansi photogen dapat dipecah oleh :

- gelombang cahaya merah

- gelombang cahaya hijau
- gelombang cahaya biru
Ad.2. Teori Hering
Teori ini menyatakan adanya tiga substansi dalam retina yang
menimbulkan tiga pasang sensasi elementer dan antagonis yaitu
:
- Kuning ----- biru
- Merah ------ hijau
-Putih -------- hitam

Sensasi merah, kuning dan putih merupakan hasil

pemecahan/katabolisme/dissimilasi suatu substansi photogen,
sedangkan biru, hijau dan hitam merupakan
synthese/anabolisme/assimilasi suatu substansi photogen.
Teori Hering juga menyatakan bahwa warna putih merupakan :
- Resynthese dari warna spektrum (seluruh warna)
- Fusi ketiga warna primer
- Warna tersendiri dari Hering
 Ad.3. Teori Modifikasi

Teori ini didasarkan atas perbedaan nilai ambang dari masing-masing warna.
Dua warna baru dapat dibedakan apabila sudah melewati suatu nilai ambang
tertentu.

Karena itu dibedakan tiga macam reseptor :

a. Reseptor yang hanya dapat menerima gelombang panjang
b. Reseptor yang hanya dapat menerima gelombang sedang
c. Reseptor yang dapat menerima semua gelombang

Cahaya merah dapat merangsang ketiga reseptor.

Cahaya hijau dapat merangsang reseptor 2 dan 3.

Cahaya biru dapat merangsang reseptor 3.
 Buta Warna

Buta warna terdapat 8 % pada laki-laki dan 0,4 % pada wanita

dari seluruh populasi.

Gambar 9: Tiga warma dasar ; biru, merah

hijau
One of the Ishihara charts for color blindness

Commonly X-linked recessive: 8% males and 0.4% females 53

Tetapi kebanyakan oleh faktor keturunan oleh gen resesif dari kromosom X

(oleh karena ada mutasi pada kromosom X). Bila kromosom resesif X terdapat
pada laki-laki (XrY) maka laki-laki tersebut adalah buta warna. Dan bila ada satu
kromosom Xr pada wanita maka wanita tersebut tidak buta warna dan baru terjadi
buta warna bila wanita tersebut mempunyai 2 kromosom Xr.
 V = d/ D
V = tajam penglihatan
d = jarak orang percobaan dengan Optotype Snellen
D = jarak sebenarnya daripada huruf dalam optotype Snellen yang dapat dibaca
oleh mata Emmetropi
Visus 6/6, kemungkinan orang tersebut :
- emmetropia
- hypermetropia dengan akomodasi
- presbyopia
The Visual Pathways
 Visual field defects
print this out and follow from the fields to the visual cortex using 4 colors
remember: fields are reversed and upside down
Visual fields
Location of lesion:
1. Optic nerve
ipsilateral (same side) blind eye
1.
2. Chiasmatic (pituitary tumors
2. classically)
1. lateral half of both eyes gone
3. 3. Optic tract
3.
2. opposite half of visual field gone
4. 4. & 5. Distal to geniculate
ganglion of thalamus:
5. homonymous superior field (4) or
homonymous inferior field (5)
defect
5.
4.
57
Visual cortex
 Adaptasi
• Ada dua macam :
-Adaptasi gelap
-Adaptasi terang
• Adaptasi gelap terjadi apabila kita
berpindah tempat dari tempat yang terang
ke tempat yang gelap. Lamanya kurang
lebih 20 menit.
• Adaptasi terang terjadi apabila kita
berpindah dari tempat yang gelap ke
tempat yang terang. Lamanya kurang lebih
5 menit.
 Visual Circadian Rhythm

• Input to suprachiasmic nucleus affects the

function of the brainstem
• Circadian rhythm ties to day-night cycle, and
affects metabolic rates
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