CORRELATION DESIGN

ANIS ARDIANA MUMTAZA (0203522041)

RATIH KUSUMANINGTYAS (0203522040)
DEFINITION OF CORRELATION
DESIGN
A correlational design is a type of scientific study that
examines the relationship between two or more variables.
Researchers use correlational designs to explore whether a
cause-and-effect relationship exists between the variables,
to determine the direction and strength of the relationship,
and to identify any potential confounding variables.
 TYPES OF CORRELATION DESIGN
1. The Explanatory Design
An Explanatory research design is a correlational design in which the researcher is interested in the extent
to which two variables (or more) co-vary, that is, where changes in one variable are refl ected in changes in
the other. Explanatory designs consist of a simple association between two variables or more than two.
The following characteristics of the explanatory correlation, which are common in this type of study:

 The investigators correlate two or more variables. They report the correlation statistical test and mention
the use of multiple variable.
 The researchers collect data at one point in time. Evidence for this procedure will be found in the
administration of instruments “in one sitting” to students.
 The investigator analyzes all participants as a single group. Compared to an experiment that involves
multiple groups or treatment conditions.
 The researcher obtains at least two scores for each individual in the group—one
for each variable. In the method discussion, the correlational investigator will
mention how many scores were collected from each participant.
 The researcher reports the use of the correlation statistical test (or an extension
of it) in the data analysis. This is the basic feature of this type of research, because
the strength and the direction of the correlational test to provide additional
information.
 The researcher makes interpretations or draws conclusions from the statistical
test results. It is important to note that the conclusions do not establish a probable
cause-and-effect (or causal inference) relationship because the researcher can use
only statistical control, rather than the more rigorous control of physically altering
the conditions.
2. The Prediction Design
A predictor variable is a variable used to make a forecast about an outcome in
correlational research. In the case of predicting teacher success in a school, the
predictor may be “mentoring” during teacher training or “years of experience
teaching.”
The purpose of a prediction research design is to identify variables that will
predict an outcome or criterion. In this form of research, the investigator identifi
es one or more predictor variable and a criterion (or outcome) variable.
 To identify a prediction study, look for the following characteristics:
 The authors typically include the word prediction in the title. It might
also be in the purpose statement or research questions.
 The researchers typically measure the predictor variable(s) at one point
in time and the criterion variable at a later point in time. Therefore, you
should examine a study to determine if the researchers build a “time”
dimension into the design.
 The authors forecast future performance. They usually state this intent in
the purpose statement or in the research questions.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
CORRELATION DESIGN
The design key characteristics of correlational research, the researchers create displays of
scores correlated for participants. To interpret correlations, the researchers examine the positive or
negative direction of the correlation of scores.
As suggested by the explanatory and prediction designs, correlation research includes specific
characteristics:
◆ Displays of scores (scatterplots and matrices)
◆ Associations between scores (direction, form, and strength)
◆ Multiple variable analysis (partial correlations and multiple regression)
1. Displays of Scores
 Scatterplots

A scatterplot (or scatter diagram) is a pictorial image displayed on a graph of two sets of
scores for participants. These scores are typically identifi ed as X and Y, with X values
represented on the horizontal axis, and Y values represented on the vertical axis. A single point
indicates where the X and Y scores intersect for one individual. The researchers to identify the
type of association among variables and locate extreme scores.
 A Correlation Matrix
A correlation matrix presents a visual display of the correlation coeffi cients for all variables
in a study. In this display, we list all variables on both a horizontal row and a vertical column in
the table.
2. Associations between Scores
 Direction of the Association
The direction of association it’s important to identify if the points intersect, or move in the same or
opposite directions. In a positive correlation, the points move in the same direction; that is, when X
increases, so does Y or, alternatively, if X decreases, so does Y. In a negative correlation, the points
move in the opposite direction ; that is, when X increases, Y decreases, and when X decreases, Y
increases.
 Form of the Association
Correlational researchers identify the form of the plotted scores as linear or non-linear, we found a
positive and negative linear relationship. This type of relationship is only one of several possibilities
that might result from actual data. A positive linear relationship of scores, where low (or high) scores
on one variable relate to low (or high) scores on a second variable. A negative linear relationship result,
where low scores on one variable relate to high scores on the other variable. Low scores on depression.
 Strength of Association
Correlational researchers interpret the magnitude and direction of the correlations. With numbers
indicating strength and valence signs indicating direction (+1.00 to –1.00), the statistic provides a measure of
the magnitude of the relationship between two variables. Although the correlation measures the degree of
relationship, many researchers prefer to square the correlation and use the resulting value to measure the
strength of the relationship ( Gravetter & Wallnau, 2007 ).

3. Multiple Variable Analysis

 Partial Correlations
Partial correlations to determine the amount of variance that an intervening variable explains in both the
independent and dependent variables. The type of variable called a mediating or intervening variable “stands
between” the independent and dependent variables and influences both of them. This variable is different
from a control variable that influences the outcome in an experiment. A partial correlation statistical analysis
is used that removes the shared variance in both time-on-task and achievement by motivation.
 Multiple Regression
Multiple Regression (or multiple correlation) is a statistical procedure for examining the
combined relationship of multiple independent variables with a single dependent variable. In
regression, the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the variance of each
independent variable (the relative importance of each predictor), as well as the combined effect
of all independent variables (the proportion of criterion variance explained by all predictors).
The Correlation researchers use correlation statistic to predict future scores. The researchers
use regression analysis to see what impact multiple variables have on an outcome, and we will
start with understanding a regression line and then move on to analysis using regression.
ETHICAL ISSUES IN CONDUCTING
CORRELATION RESEARCH

Ethical issues arise in many phases of the correlational research process. In data
collection, ethics relate to adequate sample size, lack of control, and the inclusion of
as many predictors as possible. In data analysis, researchers need a complete
statement of findings to include effect size and the use of appropriate statistics.
These issues relate to data collection, data analysis, and data reporting and
presenting. Ethical issues are considered in Brown and Hedges (2009) , Lesser and
Nordenghaug (2004), and Ramanathan (2006) as well as in some statistics texts.
 In correlational data analysis, it is unethical to not have measured appropriate
controls (e.g., age, gender, race, and others). This is especially a problem if controls
are omitted that others have pointed out.
 In terms of data analysis, educational researchers are cautioned about editing data or
making up data. For example, researchers breach ethics when they state that they have
found cause and effect, or even probable cause and effect, when their results only
show patterns of relationships.
 In data reporting and presenting, several additional ethical issues relate to
correlational research. Educational researchers should not plagiarize the words of
others, fail to report contradictory findings, publish the same evidence many times,
and omit negative findings and alternative explanations.
What are the Steps in Conducting a
Correlational Study?
Determine If a Correlational Study Best
Addresses the Research Problem
◦ Correlational research does not “prove” a relationship; rather, it indicates an association between two or
more variables.
◦ Because it is not comparing groups in a correlational study, it use research questions rather than
hypotheses.
◦ Sample questions in a correlational study might be:
◦ Is creativity related to IQ test scores for elementary children? (associating two variables)
◦ What factors explain a student teacher’s ethical behavior during the student-teaching experience?
(exploring a complex relationship)
◦ Does high school class rank predict a college student’s grade point average in the first semester of
college? (prediction)
Identify Individuals to Study
◦ Randomly select the individuals to generalize results to the population, and seek permissions to collect
the data from responsible authorities and from the institutional review board.
◦ The group needs to be of adequate size for use of the correlational statistic, such as N = 30; larger sizes
contribute to less error variance and better claims of representativeness.
◦ A narrow range of scores from a population may influence the strength of the correlation relationships.
Example: the relationship between height of basketball players and number of baskets in a game, you
might find a strong relationship among K–12th graders. But if you are selecting NBA players, this
relationship may be significantly weaker.
Identify Two or More Measures for Each
Individual in the Study
◦ Compare participants in this single group on two or more characteristics, measures of variables in the
research question need to be identified (e.g., literature search of past studies), and instruments that
measure the variables need to be obtained.
◦ The instruments should have proven validity and reliability.
◦ Obtain permissions from publishers or authors to use the instruments.
◦ Typically one variable is measured on each instrument, but a single instrument might contain both
variables being correlated in the study.
Collect Data and Monitor Potential Threats
◦ The next step is to administer the instruments and collect at least two sets of data from each individual.
The actual research design is quite simple as a visual presentation. Two data scores are collected for each
individual until you obtain scores from each person in the study.
◦ A potential for restricted range of scores—little variation in scores— certainly exists. Other factors that
might affect the researcher’s ability to draw valid inferences from the results are the lack of standard
administration procedures, the conditions of the testing situation, and the expectations of participants.
 Analyze the Data and Represent the Results
◦ Coding the data and transferring it from the instruments into a computer file.
◦ The researcher needs to determine the appropriate statistic to use.
◦ An initial question is whether the data are linearly or curvilinearly related.
◦ A scatterplot of the scores (if a bivariate study) can help determine this question.
◦ Consider whether:
◦ Only one independent variable is being studied (Pearson’s correlation coefficient)
◦ A mediating variable explains both the independent and dependent variables and needs to be
controlled (partial correlation coefficient)
◦ More than one independent variable needs to be studied to explain the variability in a dependent
variable (multiple regression coefficient)
◦ Based on the most appropriate statistical test, the researcher next calculates whether the statistic is
significant based on the scores.
For example, a p value is obtained in a bivariate study by:
◦ Setting the alpha level
◦ Using the critical values of an r table, available in many statistics books
◦ Using degrees of freedom of N = 2 with this table
◦ Calculating the observed r coefficient and comparing it with the r-critical value
◦ Rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis at a specific significance level, such as p 6 0.05 In
addition, it is useful to also report effect size ( r 2).
In correlational analysis, the effect size is the Pearson’s correlation coefficient squared. In representing
the results, the correlational researcher will present a correlation matrix of all variables as well as a
statistical table (for a regression study) reporting the R and R 2 values and the beta weights for each
variable.
Interpret the Results
◦ Discussing the magnitude and the direction of the results in a correlational study
◦ Considering the impact of intervening variables in a partial correlation study
◦ Interpreting the regression weights of variables in a regression analysis
◦ Developing a predictive equation for use in a prediction study
◦ An overall concern is whether the data support the theory, the hypotheses, or questions
◦ The researcher considers whether the results confirm or disconfirm findings from other studies
◦ A reflection is made about whether some of the threats discussed above may have contributed to
erroneous coefficients and the steps that might be taken by future researchers to address these concerns
How to Evaluate Correlational Study?
◦ An adequate sample size for hypothesis testing.
◦ The display of correlational results in a matrix or graph.
◦ An interpretation about the direction and magnitude of the association between two (or more) variables.
◦ An assessment of the magnitude of the relationship based on the coefficient of determination, p values,
effect size, or the size of the coefficient.
◦ The choice of an appropriate statistic for analysis.
◦ The identification of predictor and the criterion variables.
◦ If a visual model of the relationships is advanced, the researcher indicates the expected direction of the
relationships among variables, or the predicted direction based on observed data.
◦ The clear identification of the statistical procedures.
Useful Information for Producers of Research
◦ Identify whether you plan to examine the association between or among variables or use correlational
research to make predictions about an outcome.
◦ Plot on a graph the association between your variables so that you can determine the direction, form, and
strength of the association.
◦ Use appropriate correlational statistics in your design based on whether the data are continuous or
categorical and whether the form of the data is linear or nonlinear.
◦ Present a correlation matrix of the Pearson coefficients in your study.
Useful Information for Consumers of Research
◦ Recognize that a correlation study is not as rigorous as an experiment because the researcher can only
control statistically for variables rather than physically manipulate variables. Correlational studies do not
“prove” relationships; rather, they indicate an association between or among variables or sets of scores.
◦ Correlational studies are research in which the investigator seeks to explain the association or
relationship among variables or to predict outcomes.
◦ Realize that all correlational studies, no matter how advanced the statistics, use a correlation coefficient
as their base for analysis. Understanding the intent of this coefficient helps you determine the results in a
correlational study.