MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

Course code: 15ME1142

Unit 1 : Displacement Measurements

 Selection of Instruments
Factors to be considered for selection of Instruments
1. Range required: the expected range of the variable to be measured determines the range that the instrument must have.
The expected magnitude of the input is required to select an instrument.
2. Accuracy expected from the instrument: depending on the requirements, an instrument has to be selected to give less
error or otherwise. Hence the sensitivity and readability of the instrument are to be given careful consideration.
3. Cost of the instrument: it is always advisable to select an instrument which gives the desired level of accuracy. This
indicates, never demand an accuracy that is not required, since more accuracy means, more complication in operating the
instruments and more sophistications and hence more cost. 
4. Loading Effect: An instrument which draws minimum energy from the measured medium is to be selected to reduce
loading effect. This will ensure accurate and effective measurement.
5. Nature of input signal: Based on whether the input signal is constant or time dependent, an instrument is to be selected.
6. Ease of Calibration: An instrument which is easy to calibrate is to be preferred. Moreover, the calibration curve of the
instrument is to be stable for an elongated period of time to enable proper measurement.
7. Ease of Use: the scale, the manner in which they are designed, the nature of the reading dial are some of the key features
which will enable ease in using an instrument.
8. Effect due to environmental Errors: The errors induced in the instrument due to changes in atmospheric temperatures,
pressure and humidity should be negligible
9. Presentation of information: the manner in which the information is presented by the instrument to the user has a great
impact in selecting an instrument.
 Transducers

A Transducer is an energy converting device that receives signal from a physical situation or a condition that is the object of
measurement (measurand) and converts the signal into a definitely associated signal that is more appropriate to use as the
input to a measurement device.

The selection of transducer elements are to be done based on the following factors:
• The transducer should not alter the quantity to be measured. Hence it should be mounted with care taking its size, weight
and shape into consideration.
• The output of the transducer should not deviate from its input, I.e., it should have minimum distortion.
• The transducer should not be sensitive to environmental conditions like vibrations, temperature etc.
• The output of the transducer should be free from drift, hysteresis etc.
• The transducer should be easily available in the market and have a reasonable cost.
 Transducers- Classification

TRANSDUCERS

No. of Conversions Physical Effect Physical Entity

Source of Energy • Displacement

• Temperature
• Variable Resistance • Pressure
• Primary • Variable Inductance • Flow
• Secondary
• Active • Variable Capacitance • Speed
• Passive • Piezo-Electric • Vibration
• Photo-Electric • Strain
 Measurement Entities

• Displacement – Unit 1

• Temperature
Unit 2
• Pressure

• Flow

• Speed
Unit 3
• Vibration

• Strain
 Displacement Measurement Transducers

• Variable Resistance Transducer

• Variable Inductance Transducer

• Capacitive Transducer
 Displacement Measurement Transducers

Variable Resistance Transducer

• The variable resistance transducer works on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to
the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

where, R = Resistance in the conductor (Ohms)

ρ = Resistivity of the material (Ohm-m)
L = Length of the conductor
A = Cross-sectional Area of the conductor
• Sliding Contact Devices: In sliding contact type of variable resistance transducers there is a long conductor whose
effective length is variable.
• One end of the conductor is fixed, while the position of the other end is decided by the slider that can move along the
whole length of the conductor.
• The slider is connected to the body whose displacement is to be measured.
• When the body moves, the slider also moves along the conductor so its effective length changes, due to which its
resistance also changes.
• The effective resistance is measured as the resistance between the fixed position of the conductor and the position of the
sliding contact.
• The value of the resistance is calibrated against the input quantity, whose value can be measured directly.
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducer Linear Motion Potentiometer (POT)

• The construction of a potentiometer is categorized into two parts : Sliding and non-sliding parts
• The sliding contact is called slider / wiper : Linear or rotational
• It has three terminals. Two terminals are connected to resistive wire and third to slider
• The body of the potentiometer is made up of resistive material and conductive wire would on it.
• Translatory devices have range from 2 mm to 50 cm
• The resistance elements in common use are wire wound as this give sufficiently high resistance value in small space
• The wire is precision drawn with a diameter of about 25 to 50 microns and wound over a cylindrical mandrel made of
ceramic, glass or anodized aluminum

• The resistivity of the wire ranges from 0.4 μΩ-m to 3 μΩ-m

• The wire should be strong, ductile and protected from surface corrosion
by enameling or oxidation.
• The materials commonly employed are alloys of Cu-Ni, Ni-Cr and Ag-
Pd
• The output voltage is a linear function of the displacement
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Variable Resistance Transducer Linear Motion Potentiometer (POT)

• The battery / known input through the rheostat and slide wire will supply the working current.
• The working current may be varied by changing the setting on the rheostat.
• Consider a uniform wire AB of length LAB and uniform cross-sectional area A. Let RAB be its resistance
• Let I be the steady current flowing through the wire. Let VAB be the potential difference across the ends of wire

By Ohm’s law we have,

• Consider a point ‘P’ on the wire and length of wire between A and P be LAP
• The resistance of wire of length RAP is

The potential difference across the wire in this portion is

 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Variable Inductance Transducer

• These are based on a change in the magnetic characteristics of an electrical circuit in response to a measurand which
may be displacement, velocity, acceleration etc.
• Active type: Voltage is generated because of the relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field
 Electromagnetic : Angular speed
 Electro-dynamic : Magnetic Flow meters
 Eddy Current
• Passive Type: Motion of an object results in the inductance of the coils of the transducer
 Variable reluctance : Pressure, Force, Displacement, Acceleration etc.
 Mutual inductance : Displacement, Strain, Force etc.
 Differential transfer type
• Inductance or Self-inductance: when current in a coil changes the magnetic flux linked with the coil also
changes and hence emf is induced in the coil
• Mutual Inductance: When two coils are brought near to each other the magnetic field in one of the coils tend
to link with the other. This further leads to the generation of voltage in the second coil. This property of a
coil which affects or changes the current and voltage in a secondary coil is called mutual inductance.
• Reluctance: This term refers to that characteristic of a magnetic circuit which determines the total magnetic flux when
a given magneto-motive force is applied. It is reciprocal of permeance.
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Variable Inductance Transducer Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• Inductive transducers work on the principle of change in inductance due to any

appreciable change in the measurand.
• LVDT measures displacement in terms of voltage difference between its teo secondary
voltages.
• They are result of induction due to flux change in the secondary coil with the
displacement of the iron bar
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Variable Inductance Transducer Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• LVDT consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical hollow mandrel
• Both the secondary and primary windings have equal number of turns and they are placed on either side of the primary
windings
• The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces fluc in the air gap and voltages are induced in the
secondary coils
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the hollow mandrel and displacement to be measured is connected to the iron
core
• The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing to provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding
• The secondary windings are connected in such a way that the resulted output is the difference between the voltages of two
windings
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Variable Capacitance Transducer

• The capacitive transducer is a capacitor with variable capacitance

• It comprises two parallel metal plates that are separated by a medium (Air)
called as dielectric material.
• The distance between the two plates is variable
• The value of the capacitance changes due to change in the value of input
measurand (displacement)
• This change in capacitance can be measured easily and it is calibrated against
the measurand
• The capacitance ‘C’ between two plates of capacitive transducers is given by

where, ɛ0 = Absolute permittivity

ɛr = Relative permittivity
A = Area of the plates
d = Distance between the plates
• The capacitance of the transducer depends on the area of the plates and the
distance between them
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer
• Photo-Electric Effect: the phenomenon by which electric current is produced when a light of certain intensity strikes
on a piece of metal.
• The light consists of small packets called photons
• These photons carry energy.
• When the light strikes the photo-sensitive cathode, electrons are released and travel towards anode, thereby producing
electric current in the circuit
• The cathode and anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz envelope either evacuated or filled with inert gas
• The discharge of electrons varies the property of the photo-sensitive element
• The magnitude of current is proportional to the amount of light absorbed.
• The electrons thus produced are called photo-electrons
• The response of the photo-electric tube to different wavelength is influenced by
 The transmission characteristics of glass tube envelope
 Photo-emissive characteristics of cathode material

1. Photo-emissive cell
2. Photo-conductive Cell
3. Photo-voltaic cell
4. Ionization transducers
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer Photo-emissive cell

• It converts photons into electric energy

• It consists of anode rod and cathode plate
• The anode and cathode are coated with photo-emissive material – Cesium Antimony
• When radiation of light falls on cathode plates, the electrons starts to flow
• The anode and cathode are sealed in the closed opaque evacuated tube
• The electrons move from cathode to anode
• The anode is kept to positive terminal
• Thus photo-electric current flows through the circuit
• The magnitude of the current is directly proportional to the intensity of light passing
through it
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer Photo-emissive cell
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer Photo-Conductive cell

• The photo-conductive cell uses semiconductor material like Cadmium Sulphide, Ge, Se as photo-sensing element
• When a beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, its resistance decreases
• Thereby conductivity increases
• This produced an increase in current
• The current starts to flow through the circuits and indication is given by the meter
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer Photo-Voltaic cell

• Photo-voltaic Effect: It is a process that generates voltage in a

photovoltaic cell when exposed to light.
• They are comprised of 2 different types of semiconductors: p-type and
n-type
• They are joined together to form p-n junction
• An electric field is formed in the region of the junction as electrons
move to +ve p side and holes move to –ve n side
• This field caused positive charges to move in one direction and negative
charges to move in the other.
• The cell consists of a thin base metal, a semiconductor material and this
transparent metal layer
• When light strikes the transparent metal layer and the SC material,
voltage is generated by the flow of charges
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer

Reflective Model

• Both the light emitting and light receiving elements are contained in a single housing.

• The sensor receives the light reflected from the target

 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer

Thru-beam Model

• The transmitter and receiver are separated

• When the target is in between the transmitter and receiver, the intensity of the light is interrupted
 Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer

Retro-reflective Model

• Both the light emitting and light receiving elements are contained in a single housing.

• The light from the emitter hits the reflector and returns to the light receiving element

• When a target is present in the path of the light, the intensity of the light is interrupted
Displacement Measurement Transducers
Photo-electric Transducer