MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS AND METROLOGY

Course code: 15ME1142

Unit 2 : Pressure Measurements

 Pressure Measurement
• Mechanical Pressure Gauges
 Bourdon tube pressure gauge
 Elastic diaphragm gauges Type of pressure to be Measuring Instrument
 Bellows gauges measured
 To measure gauge pressure Low pressure Manometer
 To measure differential pressure High and Medium pressures • Bourdon tube pressure gauge
• Diaphragm gauges
• Bellows gauge
• Low pressure gauges
Low vacuum and ultra high • Mcleod vacuum gauge
 Mcleod vacuum gauge vacuum • Thermal conductivity gauges
 Thermal conductivity gauges • Ionization gauge
 Pirani Gauge
 Thermocouple type pressure gauge
 Ionization gauge
 Pressure Measurement

• Pressure is the force exerted by a medium (fluid) on a unit area due to the interaction of fluid particles amongst
themselves
• Thermodynamically, the momentum change of molecules bombarding the boundaries of a system in a unit time.
• Atmospheric Pressure (Pat): The pressure due to the air surrounding the earth’s surface. It varies with altitude because
the air near the earth’s surface is compressed by the air above. At sea level it is 1.01325 bar or 760 mm of Hg.

• Absolute Pressure (Pabs): Pressure is defined as force per unit area due to interaction of fluid particles amongst
themselves. A zero pressure will occur when molecular momentum is zero (perfect vacuum). Pressure measure from this
state of vacuum or zero pressure is called absolute pressure.

• Gauge Pressure (Pg): A pressure measuring instrument generally measures the difference between the unknown pressure
(P) and atmospheric pressure (Pat). When the unknown pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, the pressure
emeasured by the instrument is called as gauge pressure

• Static Pressure (Pst): The pressure caused on the walls of a pipe due to a fluid at rest inside the pipe or due to flow of a
fluid parallel to the walls of the pipe.

• Total or Stagnation Pressure: The pressure obtained by bringing the flowing fluid to rest.
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges

• For pressure measurement in excess of 2 atm, elastic or mechanical type pressure transducers are used

• The function of these devices is based on the deflection of a hollow tube, diaphragm, bellows caused by the applied

pressure difference

• The resulting deflection may directly actuate a pointer-scale readout through suitable linkages and gears or the motion

may transduce an electric signal

• Bellows and Diaphragm gauges – 28 to 56 bar

• Bourdon tube gauge – very high pressures

• They are secondary pressure measuring instruments

• Frequent and periodic calibration is required

 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bourdon Tube Gauge

Principle
• When an elastic transducer is subjected to a pressure, it deflects
• This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when
calibrated.

Description
• A Bourdon tube which is fixed and open at one end to receive the
pressure to be measured
• The other end of the tube is free and closed
• The cross-section of the tube is elliptical
• The tube is in bent form that looks like a circular arc
• The free end of the tube is attached to an adjustable link
• This link is connected to a sector and pinion
• The shaft of the pinion is connected to a pointer
• The pointer sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bourdon Tube Gauge

Operation
• The pressure to be measured is connected to the fixed
open end of the tube
• The applied pressure acts on the inner walls of the tube
• This tends to change the cross-section of the tube from
elliptical to circular
• This straightens the tube causing a displacement of the
free closed end
• The displacement of the free closed end is proportional
to the applied pressure
• The free end is connected to a link-sector-pinion
arrangement, the displacement is amplified and
converted to a rotary motion of the pinion
• As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a
new position on a pressure calibrated scale to indicate
the applied pressure directly.
 Pressure Measurement

Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bourdon Tube Gauge

Applications
• Used to measure medium to very high pressures

Advantages
1. They give accurate results
2. They cost low
3. They are simple in construction
4. They are safe even for high pressure measurement
5. Accuracy is high especially at high pressures

Limitations
6. They respond slowly to changes in pressure
7. They are subjected to hysteresis
8. They are sensitive to shocks and vibrations
9. Amplification is a must as the diaplacement of the free end of the tube is low
10. It cannot be used for precision measurement
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Diaphragm Gauges

Principle
• When an elastic transducer is subjected to a pressure, it deflects.
This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when
calibrated.

Description
• A diaphragm which is a thin circular plate made of elastic
material is fixed firmly around its edges.
• It may be flat or corrugated
• The top portion of the diaphragm is fixed with a boss of
negligible weight
• This boss is connected to a link-sector-pinion arrangement.
• A pointer is connected to the pinion which makes a sweep over
a pressure calibrated scale
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Diaphragm Gauges

Principle
• The bottom side of the diaphragm is exposed to the pressure
to be measured
• Due to the applied pressure, the diaphragm deforms i.e., it
tends to deflect upwards
• This deformation is proportional to the applied pressure
• This deformation is magnified by the link-sector-pinion
arrangement
• The linear displacement of the diaphragm is converted to a
magnified rotary motion of the pinion
• When the pinion rotates, it rotated the pointer on a pressure
calibrated scale.
 Pressure Measurement

Mechanical Pressure Gauges Diaphragm Gauge

Applications
• Used to measure medium pressures

Advantages
1. They cost less
2. They have linear scale for a wide range
3. They can withstand high pressures and hence they are safe to be used
4. They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure

Limitations
5. Shocks and vibrations affect their performance and hence they are to be protected
6. The diaphragm gets damaged when used for high pressure measurement
7. They are difficult to be repaired

Diaphragm materials
Metals: Stainless Steel, Inconel, Monel, Nickel and Beryllium Copper
Non-metals: Nylon, Teflon and Buna N rubber
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bellows Gauges

Principle
• When an elastic transducer is subjected to a pressure, it
deflects. This deflection is proportional to the applied
pressure when calibrated.
• There are two types:
 To measure gauge pressure
 To measure differential pressure

Description
• The bellows element in cylindrical in shape
• The wall of this cylinder is thin and corrugated
• The wall is of about 0.1 mm thick and made of elastic
material (SS, Brass, Phosphore bronze)
• This is open at one end to receive the applied pressure and
the other end is closed
• The closed end is attached with a rod
• A spring is placed inside the bellows to enable the bellows to
regain its original shape when applied pressure is relieved.
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bellows Gauges
To measure Gauge Pressure
• The rod is attached to a link-sector-pinion arrangement
• The pinion is attached to a pointer which sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale
• The pressure to be measured is applied to the fixed open side of the bellows
• Due to the applied pressure, the bellows expand lengthwise
• This linear displacement is proportional to the applied pressure
• As the rod is connected to a link-sector-pinion arrangement, the linear displacement of the rod is magnified and
converted into rotary motion of the pinion
• As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to sweep over a scale calibrated to read pressure directly
 Pressure Measurement
Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bellows Gauges

To measure Differential Pressure

• It consists of two bellows
• The rods on the closed ends of the bellows are attached to
an equal arm lever
• The lever is attached to a link-sector-pinion arrangement
• The pressures P1 and P2 are connected to the bellows
• When P1=P2, both the bellows will expand by the same
amount causing the equal arm lever to rotate.
• But this will not cause any movement of the sector-pinion
arrangement
• When P1>P2 or P2 >P1 i.e., under differential pressure,
the two bellows will expand by unequal amounts causing
the equal arm lever to rotate
• The movement of the lever, the link pushed the sector
causing the pinion to rotate.
• When the pinion rotates, the pointer sweeps over a
pressure calibrated scale indicating both the direction and
magnitude of the differential pressure.
 Pressure Measurement

Mechanical Pressure Gauges Bellows Gauge

Applications
• Used to measure medium and low pressures

Advantages
1. They can measure both gauge and differential pressures
2. They are not very costly
3. They are simple and rugged in construction

Limitations
4. Zero shift problem exists
5. Cannot be used for high pressure measurement
6. The springs used in the bellows are difficult to be designed
7. Temperature compensation is a must.
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges

• Pressures less than 1 mm of Hg – Low pressures

• Expressed in Torr or micron : 1 Torr = 1 mm of Hg; 1 micron = 10-3 Torr
• Vacuum – Pressure below atmosphere i.e., 760 mm of Hg
 Low vacuum – 760 Torr to 25 Torr
 Medium vacuum – 25 Torr to 10-3 Torr
 High vacuum – 10-3 Torr to 10-6 Torr
 Very high vacuum – 10-6 Torr to 10-9 Torr
 Ultra high vacuum – 10-9 Torr and beyond

• Low pressure gauges

 Mcleod vacuum gauge
 Thermal conductivity gauges
 Pirani Gauge
 Thermocouple type pressure gauge
 Ionization gauge
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Mcleod Vacuum Gauge

Principle
• A known volume of gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller volume (with high pressure), and using the
resulting volume and pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated
• The gas used must obey Boyle’s Law

Description
• A reference column with a reference capillary tube
• The reference capillary tube has a point called ‘zero
reference point”.
• This reference column is connected to a bulb and
measuring capillary
• The place of connection of the bulb with reference
column is called as “cut-off point”
• A mercury reservoir is present below the reference
column and the bulb
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Mcleod Vacuum Gauge

Operation
1. The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top
of the reference column of the gauge
2. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by the piston
to fill the volume
3. In this case (Condition 1), the applied pressure fills the
bulb and the capillary
4. Now, the piston is operated again to raise the level of
mercury until cut-off point, a known volume of gas
(V1) is trapped inside the bulb and measuring capillary
tube.
5. The mercury level is further raised such that the
trapped gas in the bulb and capillary tube are
compressed
6. This is done until the mercury level reaches the “Zero
reference point” marked on the reference capillary
(Condition 2)
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Mcleod Vacuum Gauge

Operation
7. At this stage, the volume of gas in the measuring
capillary tube is directly read by a calibrated scale.

8. The difference in height ‘h’ of the measuring capillary

and the reference capillary becomes a measure of the
volume (V2) and pressure (P2) after compression of the
trapped gas.

9. Since, V1, V2 and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1

is calculated using Boyle’s law
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Mcleod Vacuum Gauge

Let,
• The volume of the bulb from the cut-off point upto the beginning of measuring capillary – V
• Area of cross-section of the measuring capillary tube – A
• Height of measuring capillary tube – hc
Initial volume of gas entrapped in condition 1, V1 = V+Ahc
when the mercury has been forced upwards to reach the zero reference point in the
reference capillary tube, the final volume of the gas, V2 = Ah
where, h – Height of compressed gas in the measuring capillary tube
P1 – Applied pressure of gas (unknown)
P2 – Pressure of gas at final condition after compression = P1 + h
From Boyle’s law,

• The pressure is measured from the physical dimensions of the gauge.

• This makes it suitable for calibrating other vacuum gauges
• For greater amplification of the pressure P1 and the reading h, the compression ratio V1/A should be large
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Mcleod Vacuum Gauge

• The pressure is measured from the physical dimensions of the gauge. This makes it suitable for calibrating other vacuum
gauges
• For greater amplification of the pressure P1 and the reading h, the compression ratio V1/A should be large which is
governed by two factors
a) The size of the bulb which if made too large would involve an excess quantity of mercury
b) The size of the measuring capillary tube which is desirable to have small bore
• A lower limit to ‘A’ is restricted by the fact that if the bore is made under 1 mm, mercury tends to stick to the capillary
tube
• The compression ratio is affected due to capillary effects
Advantages
• It is independent of the gas composition
• It serves as reference standard to calibrate other low pressure gauges
• A linear relation exists between the applied pressure and ‘h’
• There is no need to apply corrections to the readings
Limitations
• The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey Boyle’s law
• Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapor into the gauge
• It measures only on a sampling basis. It cannot give continuous putput.
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Thermal Conductivity Gauge

Principle
• A conducting wire gets heated when electric current flows though it
• The rate at which heat is dissipated from this wire depends on the conductivity of the surrounding medium.
• The conductivity of the surrounding medium in turn depends on the density of the medium
• If the density of the surrounding medium is low, its conductivity will also be low (at low pressures)
• This causes the wire to become hotter for a given current flow and vice versa.

• Two types of thermal conductivity gauges are:

1. The Pirani Gauge (Resistant thermometer)
2. Thermocouple type conductivity gauge
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Thermal Conductivity Gauge Pirani Gauge

Description
• A pirani gauge chamber enclosing a platinum filament
• A compensating cell to minimize variation caused due to ambient temperature changes
• Both of the above are housed on a Wheatstone bridge circuit
Operation
• A constant current is passed through the filament in the chamber
• Due to this current, the filament gets heated and assumes a resistance
• This resistance is measured using the bridge
• The pressure to be measured is connected to the chamber
• Due to the applied pressure, the density of the surrounding medium changes
• As a result, the conductivity of the filament changes
• This causes the temperature of the filament to change
• When the temperature of the filament changes, its resistance also changes
• The change in resistance is measured using the bridge
• The change in resistance of the filament give the measure of the applied pressure

Higher pressure – Higher density – Higher conductivity – Reduced filament temperature – Reduce in resistance of filament
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Thermal Conductivity Gauge Thermocouple type conductivity Gauge

Description
• A chamber with one side open to receive applied pressure (vacuum)
• A filament placed inside the chamber
• Filament connected to a rheostat, ammeter and battery
• A thermocouple welded onto the filament
• Thermocouple connected to a milli-voltmeter
Operation
• A constant current is passed through the filament in the chamber
• Due to this current, the filament gets heated
• The filament temperature is sensed by the thermocouple
• Pressure to be measured is connected to the chamber
• Due to the pressure, the density of the surrounding medium changes
• This results in change in conductivity of the filament
• This causes the temperature of the filament to change
• The change in temperature of the filament is sensed by the thermocouple
• The change in temperature gives a measure of the pressure applied
 Pressure Measurement
Low Pressure Gauges Ionization Gauge

Ionization : It is the process of knocking off an electron from an atom and thus producing a free electron and a
positively charged ion

Description
• A cathode (heated filament), grid and anode plate placed in a chamber
• The chamber is open at one end to receive applied pressure
• The grid is maintained at positive potential (100-350 V)
• The plate (anode) is negatively biased (3-50 V) w.r.t. cathode
• The cathode is thus a positive ion collector

Operation
• The pressure to be measured is connected to the chamber
• The cathode is heated and electrons are emitted
• The high positive potential on the grid accelerates the electrons away from cathode
• These electrons collide with the gas molecules resulting in ionization of gas atoms
• Since anode is at negative potential, the +ve ions migrate to anode and current is produced
• The measurement of this current becomes a measure of the applied gas pressure